Rise and fall of changes

Author: Gao Runhao / Country: Mainland China
Publisher:
Publish Date: 2006-05-22
Features:
(1) Marriage alliances (heqin) primarily refer to the policy of forming friendly relations between the Central Plains dynasties and frontier ethnic minority regimes or among different ethnic minority regimes through marriage. It is a means of political or military alliances. Rulers during the prosperous feudal periods of the Han, Tang, and Qing dynasties all practiced marriage alliances, but their purposes and functions varied. In the early Western Han Dynasty, the marriage alliances with the Xiongnu were mainly a temporary measure, a humiliating act of seeking peace due to the Central Plains' weakness. During the Tang Dynasty, marriage alliances were political initiatives taken by a powerful Central Plains dynasty to strengthen interactions with neighboring ethnic minorities and improve ethnic relations. In the Qing Dynasty, Manchu-Mongol marriage alliances were a ruling strategy adopted by the Qing rulers to maintain their governance. Some scholars have analyzed the functions of marriage alliances, suggesting that they served several purposes for the Central Plains dynasties:
- Taming function: To pacify and control frontier ethnic minorities.
- Military function: Primarily in mediating military conflicts, directing frontier ethnic regimes, and forming alliances.
- Supervisory and restrictive function: To monitor and limit the influence of frontier ethnic regimes.
- Diversification and disintegration function: To politically weaken frontier ethnic regimes.
- Border security function: Primarily in demarcating borders and ensuring frontier defense.
- Economic function: Primarily through mutual markets and gifts.
- Cultural function: Including rituals, clothing, music, and architectural culture.
For frontier ethnic regimes, marriage alliances mainly served two functions:
- Raising political status: By associating with major powers.
- Gaining economic benefits: Through trade and alliances.
Marriage alliances were implemented multiple times in Chinese history. Statistics show that there were 16 marriage alliances during the Western Han Dynasty, 45 during the Sui and Tang dynasties, and 22 in just the early and mid-Qing Dynasty (Emperor Taizu and Emperor Taizong). In addition to official intermarriages between different ethnic groups, mutual marriages and friendly exchanges among ethnic minorities living together in the same areas became an important form of natural assimilation. Overall, official marriage alliances and intermarriages played a positive role in reducing ethnic prejudices, promoting cultural exchange, fostering ethnic integration, and strengthening the cohesion of the Chinese nation.
(2) Mutual market trade
Mutual markets were an important means for feudal dynasties to practice leniency and control over ethnic minorities. As the ancients said: "The establishment of mutual markets serves the purpose of leniency and control! Since the early Han Dynasty, this proposal was first introduced, and thus, locations for trade were selected, customs regulations were implemented, goods were exchanged, and mutual trust was fostered. This practice was followed by successive dynasties, also serving as one method of 'making peace with the northern tribes.'" The reason trade became a method of 'making peace with the northern tribes' was closely related to the economic disparities between the Central Plains and the surrounding regions. The self-sufficient small-scale agricultural economy of the Central Plains, except for some non-essential luxury goods, could produce most daily necessities. The long-standing policy of prioritizing agriculture over commerce had led to the neglect of the role of foreign trade. The economies of northern nomadic ethnic groups were relatively simple and highly dependent on natural conditions, making them eager to engage in trade with the Central Plains. Seeing this desire for trade among neighboring ethnic groups, the rulers of the Central Plains dynasties used trade as a means to influence and pacify them.
The main forms of trade were: border mutual markets and tribute trade. During the feudal prosperous periods, rulers generally supported and encouraged border mutual markets, with some trade directly organized by the government. For example, in the eighth year of Wude (625 AD) during the early Tang Dynasty, the Turks and Tuyuhun requested mutual markets, which were granted by Emperor Gaozu. Due to the complementary and mutually beneficial nature of mutual markets for all parties involved, they were widely welcomed by people of all ethnic groups. Mutual market trade strengthened material exchanges between ethnic groups and enhanced economic and cultural ties. Additionally, through mutual markets, the Central Plains dynasties could purchase strong horses from ethnic minorities to strengthen their cavalry. For instance, after the An Lushan Rebellion, the Tang government engaged in silk-horse trade with the Uyghurs, which not only boosted the economy but also helped the army secure some warhorses, carrying significant military importance.
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