The Origin of Literary Masterpieces – "The Songs of Chu" and Chinese Culture

Author: Li Zhonghua
Publisher:
Publishing Date: 1998-08-01
Features:
1. Qu Yuan's Life
Qu Yuan, named Ping, styled Yuan, was also known as Zhengze and Lingjun according to some interpretations of Li Sao. Historical records do not provide exact dates for his birth and death; scholars estimate he was born around the first year of King Wei of Chu (339 BC) and died around the twenty-first year of King Qingxiang of Chu (278 BC), living to be around sixty years old. The era in which Qu Yuan lived was when the Chu State was transitioning from prosperity to decline. Amidst the winds and rains of the times, Qu Yuan's life journey began with youthful determination to reform and actively participate in court affairs, then turned to exile in the wilderness after being slandered and sidelined in middle age, ultimately ending his life in self-sacrifice in his twilight years. It can be said that Qu Yuan devoted his entire life, without reservation, to his homeland and its people. A learned and talented man, he was driven by a desire to serve his country.
Qu Yuan's distant ancestors can be traced back to Zhuanxu Gaoyang, one of the Five Emperors of ancient China. Among the descendants of Zhuanxu was Ji Lian, whose surname was Mi, and he became the ancestor of the Chu people. After Ji Lian came Yu Xiong, who once served King Wen of Zhou. His descendants later adopted the surname Xiong. During the Spring and Autumn Period, King Wu of Chu, Xiong Tong, enfeoffed his son Xia at Cu, and his descendants later took the name of their fief as their surname. In reality, the Qu surname was merely a branch of the Chu royal family. At that time, the Chu State had three major surnames—Zhou, Jing, and Qu—all revering the same distant ancestor and belonging to the same family system, thus all could be considered members of the Chu royal family. Among Qu Yuan's ancestors were high-ranking officials and accomplished figures. The Qu family's relationship with the Chu State was one of shared fate and inseparable bonds. Qu Yuan received an excellent cultural education from a young age. He loved learning and paid special attention to accumulating knowledge and cultivating his moral character. Records of the Grand Historian describes him as "learned and wise, understanding governance and chaos, skilled in rhetoric," which allowed him to enter the court in his youth and assist King Huai of Chu in managing state affairs.
Appointed as the Left Minister, he sought to reform the court. According to Records of the Grand Historian, the Left Minister was a high-ranking official in Chu, ranked second only to the Prime Minister (Chancellor of Chu). As a young Qu Yuan, holding this position provided him with a rare opportunity to realize his political ambitions. During this time, he fully participated in Chu's domestic and foreign affairs. He discussed state affairs with the king, issued decrees nationwide, welcomed guests, and dealt with envoys from other states. He once drafted "constitutions" for the court and was sent to Qi to form alliances, earning the trust of King Huai of Chu with his loyalty and talent. Qu Yuan's ideal was to reform the laws and politics domestically to make the state prosperous and its people happy, while externally resisting the invasion of the Qin State to achieve the great goal of unifying China. However, before he could realize this ambition, he faced opposition and suppression from evil forces in the court.
Slandered and Marginalized, Reappointed as the Minister of the Three Enclosures
As an ancient empire with a millennium of history, the Chu State's governance had long been controlled by conservative nobles. Before Qu Yuan, Wu Qi implemented reforms in Chu but was killed because he offended the interests of the privileged aristocracy, even suffering a brutal execution after his death. Therefore, Qu Yuan's efforts to reform the court inevitably drew the displeasure of conservative forces. At that time, the bureaucratic group led by Jin Shang, representing the interests of the conservative faction, opposed Qu Yuan's political views and envied his talent. They conspired with the favored concubine Zheng Xiu to slander Qu Yuan to King Huai, driving a wedge between them. As a result, Qu Yuan was marginalized. Around the sixteenth year of King Huai of Chu, Qu Yuan was pushed out of the core of the Chu court and appointed as the Minister of the Three Enclosures.
Zhao Maojun and Others Spreading Chu Ci
Emperor Gaozu of Han, Liu Bang, rose to power in Pei (now part of Jiangsu), which once belonged to Chu. Influenced by Chu culture, members of the Han imperial family showed a special interest in Chu songs and ballads. Emperor Gaozu had The Wind at Dawn, and Emperor Wu had The, both grand and expansive works in the Chu style, which had a profound influence. During the reigns of Emperors Wen and Jing of the Western Han, Jia Yi and Zhu Ji's fu (rhapsodies) contained phrases that matched Qu Yuan's works, naturally the result of their thorough study of Qu Yuan's writings. According to Records of the Han Dynasty·Zhao Maojun, someone recommended the scholar Zhao Maojun from Kuaiji to Emperor Wu, who was delighted to meet him and appointed Zhao Maojun as a Middle Minister after hearing him speak of Spring and Autumn Annals and Chu Ci. The ability to explain Chu Ci had become a path to career advancement, revealing the cultural trends of the time. During Emperor Xuan of Han, another scholar, Jiangdu Gong, was summoned to the court for his ability to recite Chu Ci, receiving rewards. Emperor Xuan also remarked, "Fu (rhapsodies) are great when they carry the same meaning as ancient poetry, and small when they are elegant and pleasing." He believed that fu, with their ornate style, contained moral admonitions and offered insights into birds, animals, plants, and trees, surpassing entertainers and games in value (Records of the Han Dynasty·Wang Bao). With the strong promotion of the emperors, Chu Ci quickly spread and became an important part of Han culture.
Liu An Commissions The Commentary on Li Sao
Liu An (179–122 BC), a grandson of Emperor Gaozu of Han and enfeoffed as King of Huainan, ruled over Shouchun, which was once a capital of Chu, making him deeply connected to Chu Ci. A lover of books and music, he gathered scholars and sorcerers, writing the Huainanzi. Among his famous literary disciples were the "Eight Scholars of Huainan," making Liu An the leader of this literary group. Records of the Han Dynasty·Bibliography lists "Eighty-two Fu by King Huainan" and "Forty-four Fu by Scholars of Huainan," accounting for one-third of the total recorded fu, reflecting the prosperity of the Huainan literary scene at the time. Liu An was regarded as an expert in Chu Ci. Records of the Han Dynasty·Biography of King Huainan states that Emperor Wu of Han loved literature and arts, and since Liu An was skilled in writing, he ordered him to write The Commentary on Li Sao. Liu An completed the work the next day (Records of the Han Dynasty·King Huainan). Wang Yi's Commentary on Chu Ci states that Emperor Wu "ordered King Huainan to write The Commentary on Li Sao with great clarity." The Commentary on Li Sao or The Commentary on the Li Sao Classic were both interpretations and critiques of Qu Yuan's Li Sao, possibly different titles for the same work. The content of The Commentary on Li Sao, apart from Ban Gu's preface, is lost to history. Later, Liu An was forced to commit suicide for treason, and his disciples were executed in large numbers, leading to the loss of many of their fu works. However, it is certain that Liu An and his disciples played a significant role in spreading Chu Ci.
Liu Xiang Compiles Books in the Imperial Library, Chu Ci is Officially Collected
According to Records of the Han Dynasty·Biography of Emperor Cheng, "In the eighth month of the autumn of the third year of the Heping era, Liu Xiang, the Minister of Light Guard, compiled the secret books in the imperial library. Chen Nong, the Envoys, were sent to seek lost books across the land." The third year of Heping corresponds to 26 BC, and Liu Xiang died in 6 BC, spanning twenty years. During this time, Liu Xiang sorted and copied the vast collection of books and documents in the palace and those presented from various regions. For each completed work, he wrote a Preface, discussing its purpose and clarifying any errors. The compilation and collection of Chu Ci were completed during this period. Wang Yi's Commentary on Chu Ci states that Qu Yuan's works included twenty-five pieces, "which later scholars admired and elaborated upon. By Liu Xiang's time, when he compiled the classics, they were divided into sixteen volumes." The original sixteen-volume Chu Ci compiled by Liu Xiang has been lost, but the works it recorded are fully preserved in Wang Yi's Commentary on Chu Ci. The current Commentary on Chu Ci is organized as follows: Volume 1 is Li Sao, Volume 2 is Jiu Ge, Volume 3 is Tian Wen, Volume 4 is Jiu Zhang, Volume 5 is Yuan You, Volume 6 is Bu Ju, Volume 7 is Yu Fu, Volume 8 is Jiu Bian, Volume 9 is Zhao Hun, Volume 10 is Da Zhao Hun, Volume 11 is Xi Zhi, Volume 12 is Zhao Yin Shi, Volume 13 is Qi Jian, Volume 14 is Ai Shi Ming, Volume 15 is Jiu Huai, Volume 16 is Jiu Tan, and Volume 17 is Wang Yi's own Jiu Si. From "Seeking ginger and orchids to spread the feast" to the end is the third part. This section's central theme is the dilemma of staying or leaving. Since Qu Yuan was unsuited to serving the ruler and unable to find worthy officials, what was the meaning of staying in Chu? Amidst this conflict and confusion, Qu Yuan consulted Ling Feng for divination. Ling Feng advised him to leave his homeland and go to another country. Qu Yuan hesitated but then sought the divine wisdom of Wu Xian through shamanic rituals to resolve his doubts. Wu Xian conveyed the divine will, urging Qu Yuan to stay temporarily to wait for the opportunity to align with the ruler and advising him to conform to the conventions to avoid persecution from the faction. Qu Yuan replied that he could not violate his moral principles to compromise with the world. He then decided to travel the world, observing the four corners. Once he made the decision to leave his country, he imagined riding dragons and winds to travel far and wide. The places described in the poem—Kunlun, Tianjin, the Western Extreme, the Flowing Sands, the Red Water, Mount Buzhou, and the Western Sea—are all mythological locations. However, when the poet, soaring high above the clouds with eight dragons and flags, suddenly looked down at his homeland, he felt as if struck by lightning. His heart was filled only with extreme conflict and sorrow. Unable to bear parting from his homeland and the hope of a better government, the poet resolved to sacrifice his life to his ideals in repayment to his country.
The emotional thread of Li Sao is clear: first, anxiety for the court and anger at the evil forces; then, a search for solutions to revitalize his homeland; after disappointment, confusion about staying or leaving; and finally, a resolution to die for his country. The entire work carries a tone of heroic grandeur and tender longing. His attachment to the king, his resentment, his indecision between staying and leaving, his fervent hope for a better government, and his unwavering vow to die for his ideals—all form the multiple emotional melodies of Li Sao.
Jiu Zhang consists of nine works, with content similar to that of Li Sao. Liu Xiang's Jiu Tan contains two lines: "Complaining Li Sao to express my sentiments, yet the meaning is still incomplete in Jiu Zhang (Jiu Tan·You Ku)." This suggests that while Li Sao expressed his aspirations, Jiu Zhang still left his feelings unsatisfied. Thus, Jiu Zhang is also primarily a lyrical poem expressing political and social emotions.
(1) Jiu Zhang and Its Order
In the extant Commentary on Chu Ci by Wang Yi, Jiu Zhang includes nine works: Xi Song, She Jiang, Ai Ying, Chou Si, Hai Sha, Si Mei Ren, Xi Wang Ri, Ji Song, and Bei Hui Feng. Wang Yi explains the titles, stating, "Zhang means to manifest or clarify, indicating that the author's expressed loyalty and sincerity are very clear." This interpretation of "Zhang" as manifesting intent is generally not accepted by later scholars. Zhu Xi, in Collected Annotations on Chu Ci, simply states that the Han people collected Qu Yuan's writings and found nine pieces with similar structure and content, naming them Jiu Zhang. This view considers Jiu Zhang to be a collective term for nine lyrical pieces. Modern scholars suggest that "Jiu Zhang" refers to an ancient musical piece. Legend has it that during the reign of Emperor Yao, there was a musical piece called Da Zhang, and Jiu Zhang was the same as Da Zhang, similar to how the ancient musical piece Da Xia could be called Jiu Xia. In the five works from Xi Song to Hai Sha, the final stanza is called "luan ci," and they were all imitated by Yang Xiong in the Han Dynasty. These five are undoubtedly works by Qu Yuan. As for the four works like Si Mei Ren, doubts have been raised since ancient times. Skeptics argue that these four works lack "luan ci," and Si Mei Ren shares many similarities with Qu Yuan's works, while Xi Wang Ri and Bei Hui Feng do not resemble Qu Yuan's style, suggesting they are imitations by Qu Yuan's disciples or anonymous authors. Supporters, however, argue that the nine works in Jiu Zhang were already widely circulated, and these doubts only add to confusion. Since this book does not delve into this issue in detail, it will continue to treat Jiu Zhang as a unified whole and analyze it as Qu Yuan's work.