Biographies of Famous Greeks and Romans (Part 1)

Author: (Ancient Greece) Plutarch / Huang Hongxu as the editor / Lu Yongting / Wu Pengpeng, etc.
Publisher:
Publishing Time: 1990-11-01
Features: "The Lives of the Noble Grecians and Romans" (also known as "Parallel Lives"), is a renowned work by Lucius Mestrius Plutarch, a Greek biographer and moralist from the early Roman Empire (c. 46–120 AD). It is considered the origin of Western biographical historical writing.
I. Plutarch is celebrated for his historical biographies, yet he left no autobiographical materials for posterity. Like many ancient historians and writers, much of what we know about Plutarch's life comes from the anecdotes and dialogues scattered throughout his own works. Plutarch was born around 46 AD in the town of Chaeronea in Boeotia, central Greece. His family was wealthy and cultured, with his father, Aristobulus, being a renowned biographer and a scholar of philosophy. From a young age, Plutarch was nurtured in a scholarly environment, developing a deep love for knowledge and an insatiable thirst for learning. During his youth, he studied in Athens under Ammonius, learning mathematics, philosophy, rhetoric, history, and medicine. He traveled extensively throughout Greece's historical cities, such as Thebes, Corinth, and Perseus, visited the Aegean islands, and even went to Egypt, Asia Minor, and Italy. Wherever he went, Plutarch paid close attention to the local religions and political issues, while also collecting historical documents, anecdotes, and proverbs. He even gathered inscriptions, paintings, and charts. He left no stone unturned in his pursuit of historical knowledge, which later served as a rich source of firsthand material for his writings. He was well-versed in the knowledge of his time and deeply concerned with the human condition, becoming a learned scholar with profound humanistic values. From approximately 69 to 79 AD, Plutarch was sent to Rome on official duties and taught philosophy there. During his time in Rome, he met many distinguished figures and traveled to other parts of Italy, gaining a deeper understanding of Rome's history, politics, and culture. Knowing he was an outsider from a remote town, Plutarch placed great importance on immersing himself in the city, reading widely, and associating with knowledgeable individuals to gather material. Although he acquired Roman citizenship, he eventually returned to his hometown of Chaeronea. He devoted himself to writing while holding numerous public offices and actively participating in public affairs. He served as a priest at the Temple of Apollo at Delphi multiple times. Delphi, located about 20 miles west of Chaeronea, was known as Plutarch's second hometown. After Plutarch's death in 120 AD, the Delphians erected a statue in his honor as a tribute to this outstanding citizen.
Plutarch was a gentle, kind, and magnanimous person, free from vanity. His writings reflect his character, and he was particularly admired for his emphasis on filial piety and friendship as the foundation of his life. His family life was harmonious and happy; his wife, Timarete, was wise and modest, and their love for each other was deep. This is vividly portrayed in his comforting letter to her after their four-year-old daughter passed away. His father and brothers often appeared at home, and the conversations during these family gatherings became an important source of material for his writing. Plutarch's life at home was peaceful and prosperous, with friends often visiting to discuss philosophy and ethics. He frequently mentioned his friends' names in his works.
Plutarch was a prolific writer, considered one of the rare productive authors of antiquity. According to the surviving Lampria Catalogue, Plutarch wrote 277 works, most of which have been lost. The 100 or so preserved works were compiled into two collections: one included 50 biographies titled "Parallel Lives," and the other included 60-70 essays and aphorisms titled "Moralia." Although "Parallel Lives" is his most celebrated legacy, the "Moralia" explores ethical, religious, philosophical, scientific, political, and literary issues, covering a vast range of topics that reflect Plutarch's ethical thought, religious views, worldview, and the moral climate and behavioral norms of his time. It remains an important document for understanding Plutarch's life and ideas.
Plutarch's ethical philosophy primarily draws from Plato's theories, while also incorporating the strengths of Aristotle, the Stoics, and the Pythagoreans. From a philosophical perspective, he was a moderate who grounded his ideas in Platonism, placing particular emphasis on moral practice. Therefore, the center of his philosophical thought is ethical and moral issues. He was proud of the intellectual and cultural achievements of the "sages" of ancient Greece. He held Plato in especially high regard, often considered a devoted follower. "Parallel Lives" has long been regarded as a treasure in the Western classical canon, a monumental work that blends history, literature, and life philosophy. Many historical figures from ancient Greece and Rome have been preserved in history through the vivid narratives in this work. For over 2,000 years, "Parallel Lives" has been cherished for its rich historical material, simple yet vivid narration, and the ethical ideas woven throughout it. Although not strictly a historical treatise, its unique style, focus on important historical figures from ancient Greece and Rome, detailed descriptions of significant events, preservation of fragmented historical materials, and rare anecdotes have made it an indispensable classic for studying Greek and Roman history.
On the other hand, Plutarch is also the pioneer of Western biographical literature, often referred to as the precursor of the "modern psychological biographer" in the West. His writing style and stylistic influence had a profound impact on the development of prose, biography, and historical fiction in Europe and America. Therefore, Plutarch holds a unique and important position in Western historiography, literature, and ethical philosophy.
II. The surviving "Parallel Lives" consists of 50 biographies. Among them, 46 are paired, forming true parallels—one Greek figure paired with one Roman figure, totaling 23 pairs, each followed by a comparative discussion. The remaining four are standalone biographies, without comparison or discussion. The original order of the biographies in the book is only partially known, such as the pair of Epaminondas (a Greek hero) and Scipio Africanus (a Roman general) and their combined discussion (now lost); the second pair of Themistocles (a Athenian military and political leader who achieved great victories at the Battle of Salamis) and Camillus (a Roman consul who held five consulships and celebrated four triumphs, earning the title "Second Founder of Rome"); the third pair of Cimon (a statesman and military leader) and Lucullus (a Roman general renowned for his military prowess); the fourth pair of Lycurgus (a lawgiver and founder of Sparta) and Numa Pompilius (a legendary king of Rome); the fifth pair of Demosthenes (a great Greek orator and statesman) and Cicero (a famous Roman statesman, philosopher, and orator); and the tenth pair of Pericles and Fabius. According to Plutarch's early English translation by Sir Thomas North, as well as Dryden's later translation in the late 17th century and subsequent French and Western versions, these biographies are generally arranged in chronological order. This arrangement aligns with the conventions of historical biography. The modern "Parallel Lives" typically begins with the biographies of Theseus (the legendary founder of Athens) and Romulus (the legendary founder of Rome), followed by Lycurgus—Numa, Solon—Publilia, Themistocles—Camillus, Pericles—Fabius, Alcibiades—Coriolanus, Timoleon—Aemilius Paulus, Pelopidas—Mancelius, Aristides—Marcus Cato, Philopoemen—Flaminius, Pyrrhus—Marius, Lysander—Sulla, Cimon—Lucullus, Nicias—Crassus, Sertorius—Eumenes, Agesilaus—Pompey, Alexander—Caesar, Phocion—Cato the Younger, Agis—Cleomenes, Tiberius Gracchus—Gaius Gracchus, Demosthenes—Cicero, Demetrius—Antony, Dion—Brutus. The last four are standalone biographies: Aratus, Artaxerxes, Galba, and Otho.
Set against the vast historical stage of ancient Greek and Roman society, "Parallel Lives" creates a series of vivid characters. As for why Plutarch chose this paired format, he believed that the best way to understand the differences or similarities in people's characters was to compare their lives and actions, much like the portraits displayed in an art gallery. This is one aspect of the matter; another, though not explicitly stated by him, can be felt throughout the work. For example, in the combined discussion of Pericles and Fabius, Plutarch notes that Pericles adorned the Athenian city with magnificent public buildings. In contrast, the grandeur and splendor pursued by the Romans from their founding to the reign of several emperors seemed pale in comparison. Further, whether in grand design or exquisite architectural art, Greek achievements soared far above those of the Romans, the two being almost incomparable. On one hand, Plutarch harbored a pan-Hellenistic patriotic sentiment, taking pride in the past glory and achievements of ancient Greece. On the other hand, he supported the Roman Empire and praised its governance and military prowess since its founding. His "Parallel Lives" was originally dedicated to Trajan's favorite, Sosius Senecio, to foster harmony and friendship between the Greeks and Romans. To prove that ancient Greece, like Rome, had its own outstanding lawgivers, military leaders, and orators, Plutarch paired a Greek figure he considered to be in the same field with a renowned Roman figure, each receiving separate biographies with combined discussions. Overall, each biography in "Parallel Lives" follows a certain writing pattern. Plutarch always begins by introducing the subject's family background, upbringing, and experiences during his youth, then focuses on how the protagonist achieved success on the battlefield or saved the day; or how he endured hardship and rescued the people from crisis; and finally concludes with his death and posthumous influence. Since each character's background and experiences differ, their portrayals in Plutarch's works naturally reflect both commonalities and individual personalities. Although each biography follows this general pattern, Plutarch's masterful language artistry, interwoven with vivid anecdotes and moral thoughts, makes each historical figure unique and lifelike. It is also worth mentioning that Plutarch excelled at extracting small incidents from the lives and events of the figures he recorded, serving as a finishing touch to highlight their characters and leave a deep impression on readers. For example, in the biography of the Gracchi brothers, the description of the differences in temperament and speech manner between Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus makes readers feel as if they are witnessing them in person. In the biography of Pericles, Plutarch begins by emphasizing his distinctive physical features: Pericles had an impeccable physique except for his disproportionately long head, resembling the tyrant Pisistratus. Even the elderly were surprised by their resemblance. However, Plutarch still felt this was not enough and further reinforced readers' impression of Pericles' "garlic head" through references to various comic plays. For anyone who has read the biography of Pericles, it is difficult to forget his distinctive appearance: this is the artistic charm of Plutarch's historical narration.
III. The biography of Agis is one of the representative works in "Parallel Lives" where Plutarch emphasizes moral ideals. Although Agis grew up in a wealthy and luxurious environment, he early rejected pleasure and luxury, embracing self-restraint, simplicity, and generosity. In an era of widespread moral decline, he upheld frugality and piety. He believed in divine prophecy and wanted all Spartans to live under the laws established by Lycurgus in equal status. The army he led was highly motivated and disciplined, and its soldiers fought bravely. Agis almost became the embodiment of Plutarch's moral ideals. Due to saving the life of Leonidas, his own kindness and trust in his enemies led to his execution by the ephors, the Spartan kings. The author's concluding remarks are: "This makes those who loved him more deserving of blame than those who hated him." For the moral flaws or behavioral shortcomings of the outstanding figures he recorded, Plutarch also had specific discussions. He believed that writing biographies was like painting portraits. If these figures had minor flaws, painters should neither completely ignore them nor exaggerate them. Exaggeration would make the portrait ugly, while ignoring it would distort it. Historians should not be overly eager to depict these flaws but should handle them with caution. He pointed out these flaws only to illustrate that human nature is not without imperfections. No one is perfect or free of flaws. The virtues of the heroes in "Parallel Lives" are not all flawless. For example, the lavish hospitality and unrestrained private lives of Cimon and Lucullus, Agis's excessive kindness toward his enemies, and Gaius's occasional rashness and impulsiveness. The biography of Pericles best reflects Plutarch's writing principles. He believed he was not writing history but biographies. Glorious achievements do not necessarily reflect a person's virtues or vices; often, a small incident, a word, or a joke can more clearly reveal a person's character and tendencies. Therefore, he focused on showcasing the features of a person's soul and its manifestations, using this to depict each figure's life story, while leaving their military and political achievements to others to write. In the biography of Pericles, Plutarch begins with an ethical discussion, concluding that virtue is attractive and can inspire immediate action to emulate it. Not only does imitating virtue shape the observer's character, but studying it also provides a guide for action. Plutarch also reminded readers that this was his tenth biography. He then discussed Pericles' large head and described his character traits: dignified, composed, and gentle in speech. He followed this with an anecdote: Once, Pericles was insulted all day by an uncouth man, yet he endured it silently. By evening, he calmly walked home, with the man still following him, insulting him relentlessly. When he entered his house, it was already dark, so he ordered a servant to light a torch and escort the man home to rest. By this point, a distinct image of a different Pericles had emerged. Throughout the biography, Plutarch's description of Pericles' political and military achievements is minimal, simply introducing his expedition to Cossus and his campaign against the Samians, while largely omitting his political reforms in Athens. This reflects both his underestimation of Pericles' political and military accomplishments and his bias against the democratic political reforms in Athens, while favoring Sparta's military democracy. However, he still gave fair evaluations of Pericles' other virtues, such as his selflessness, leadership skills, eloquence, wit, and his unparalleled architectural achievements for Athens. After Pericles' death, people often recalled his deeds and discussed his character and talents, enumerating his accomplishments. As a general who had won many battles for the city-state, he erected nine triumphal columns. In short, Plutarch's description of Pericles' life used materials different from those of most historians, reflecting his principle of focusing on small incidents that reveal a person's inner self. Through his writing, we also see another side of Pericles. This is another side of history that Plutarch provides for us—the history of the human soul.
In the biography of Fabius, Plutarch returns to the common biographical method of focusing on the main events of the subject's life. It reflects Plutarch's flexible and versatile writing style. Fabius was a Roman statesman and military leader famous for his delaying tactics against the Carthaginian general Hannibal, saving Rome from crisis and earning eternal fame. Fabius was born into a distinguished Roman family, and it was said that his ancestors once made a living by setting traps to hunt animals, and the family was named after this. As a child, Fabius was mild-tempered, quiet, and slow-moving, considered "as gentle as a lamb" and even mistaken for somewhat foolish, almost a fool. However, Plutarch believed that only a few people noticed his unyielding and upright character deep within his soul and his noble and brave qualities. Later, Fabius honed his oratory skills and strengthened his physique through warfare. During his tenure as consul for the first time, Fabius achieved great victories over the South Etruscans and Ligurians. Subsequently, he accepted the mission of dictator in the face of Hannibal's overwhelming advance, adopting his famous delaying tactics—avoiding direct confrontation with Hannibal, turning the tide by engaging with the Italian city-states and weakening Hannibal's momentum until "just as a small fire kindled from twigs would inevitably extinguish itself." Fabius first worked hard to stabilize public morale and boost morale. After the Battle of Cassinum and the Battle of Cannae, Fabius's reputation rose and fell, and he served as consul for three consecutive terms. Every battle, the Roman army suffered repeated defeats, and each failure was due to the cavalry commander not executing Fabius's delaying strategy. This reflected both Hannibal's wisdom and bravery and, conversely, demonstrated the wisdom of Fabius's delaying tactics under the circumstances. Although the author's focus is on the process of several battles, such as Hannibal's famous "Mule Charge" at the Battle of Cassinum and the tactical formation that Hannibal won decisively at the Battle of Cannae, Plutarch always described how Fabius endured hardship, faced ridicule with composure, and maintained his virtues of modesty and steadiness. For example, after the Battle of Cassinum, Fabius and Minucius jointly commanded the army. Minucius was dissatisfied with Fabius's delaying strategy and led his troops to set up camp independently. Hannibal took advantage of Minucius's aggressive nature and laid an ambush, crushing Minucius's army. Fabius arrived in time to prevent a complete disaster. Minucius and his men were grateful to Fabius for his kindness and wisdom. When Fabius served as consul for the fourth time, he achieved a decisive victory at the Battle of the Metaurus. In this battle, he outwitted Hannibal, and Hannibal had to privately admit that "it seems the Romans also have a Hannibal, and it is impossible for them to occupy all of Italy with their current forces." Around the time Hannibal left Italy by sea, Fabius fell seriously ill and passed away. Plutarch highly praised Fabius's perseverance in overcoming the young, arrogant Hannibal, noting that he accepted the mission in a time of crisis but did not let the crisis disturb his mind or abandon the principles he held dear, demonstrating his strong will and great character.
In the biography of Solon, Plutarch primarily portrays Solon as the legislator of Athens. Solon was born into an Athenian aristocratic family, and his father was generous. By the time Solon was young, his family had fallen on hard times. Solon traveled abroad for business and exploration. Plutarch believed that Solon's travels were primarily to gain experience and knowledge, not to make money. During this process, Solon met famous Greek philosophers like Thales and gained the reputation of one of the "Seven Sages of Greece," also showing his outstanding poetic talent. Plutarch preserved many famous lines of poetry by Solon in this biography, such as: "Morality is eternal, while wealth changes hands every day." "Tyranny is a delightful position, but there is no path to descend from it." In 600 BC, Solon led the Athenians to regain Salamis Island from the Megarians through a clever strategy, showcasing his outstanding military talent and bringing him immediate fame. Thereafter, Athens experienced conflicts between the mountain party, the plain party, and the sea party over the political system. With the support of the common people, Solon was elected as archon and appointed as the mediator and legislator for the crisis. Solon thus began the democratic political reforms in Athens. Plutarch's account focuses mainly on the laws Solon established, their implementation at the time, and the reactions they provoked. Solon's ，“”，；，；。Solon also conducted a survey and classification of citizens' property and established corresponding political rights based on property categories. These new laws included: establishing the Four Hundred Council; prohibiting arranged marriages and protecting the interests of widows and orphans; revising the death penalty; and other measures to encourage the development of handicrafts and agriculture. As soon as Solon's laws were implemented, people came to him every day to praise or criticize them, or suggest adding or removing clauses, and many others went to ask about the purpose and meaning of the clauses. To escape this situation, Solon，。 during this time, people would become accustomed to the laws he had established. When Solon returned from his travels to Athens, a conflict broke out in Athens, triggered by Pisistratus's plan to establish tyranny. Solon retired to his home in his later years, engaging in research and writing. After his death, his remains were cremated, and his ashes were scattered on Salamis Island, where he had fought and struggled.
In the biography of Themistocles, Plutarch recounted the brilliant yet tragic life of this Greek military and political figure. Plutarch first pointed out that Themistocles, though born into a humble family, was fierce in temperament from a young age, intelligent, and determined to achieve great things. His teacher had once predicted that whether good or bad, he would become a formidable figure after growing up. The era in which he lived was a decisive stage of the Persian Wars (500–449 BC), a turbulent period that provided a broad historical stage for his talent. After the Battle of Marathon (490 BC), all Athenians were intoxicated by this unprecedented victory, but Themistocles could not sleep at night. He keenly realized that the defeat of the Persians at Marathon was not the end of the Persian Wars but the beginning of even fiercer battles. He believed that to save Athens, it was necessary to develop a strong navy. Using the income from the Laurium silver mines, he built over 100 warships. During his tenure as archon, the development of the Athenian navy had a huge impact on the political, economic life, and the relationships between different social strata. In 480 BC, the Persian army launched a massive invasion of Athens from both land and sea, and Themistocles fully demonstrated his outstanding political and military talents in a critical moment. He first issued an edict allowing his political opponents, those exiled by ostracism, to return to participate in the defense of the motherland, and he voluntarily gave the supreme command of the navy to the Spartan general Eurymenides to strengthen the unity of the Persian alliance. He also used cleverly interpreted divine prophecies to persuade most Athenian citizens to evacuate Athens and, through cunning tactics, lured the Persians to engage in a sea battle in the Salamis Gulf, which was favorable to the Greeks. It was due to Themistocles's timely judgment, noble character, and strategic planning that the Greeks won the brilliant victory at the Battle of Salamus. This victory also brought him great honor, making him a prominent figure in Greece for a time. Later, he clashed with the Spartans over the defense of the walls. His political opponents, including Aristides and Cimon, used the ostracism law to strip him of his dignity and achievements. After being exiled from the city, he first wandered in Aegina. Later, he was falsely accused of conspiring with the Persians and fled to Egypt, where he sought refuge with the Persian king. Later, when the Persian king ordered him to plot against Athens, he remained true to his word and refused to do anything that would harm Greece, eventually taking his own life and dying in exile at the age of 。
IV. The unique position of "Parallel Lives" in the development of Western historiography first lies in its pioneering the genre of biographical historical writing. In Plutarch's time, it was quite common to compose biographies of outstanding figures in politics and military affairs, and "Parallel Lives" was one of the most outstanding examples. This model of writing remained very popular throughout the Middle Ages. In terms of sources, "Parallel Lives" drew from a wide range of materials, including previous historical works, contemporary books and documents, and the author's firsthand knowledge of anecdotes and stories. Among historical works, Herodotus's "History" and Thucydides's "History of the Peloponnesian War" were important sources cited by Plutarch, and Livy's "History of Rome" was another important document he drew lessons from. Although Plutarch often mixed subjective evaluations and moral teachings in his narrative of historical events, the historical value of "Parallel Lives" is undeniable. Plutarch collected a wealth of materials in "Parallel Lives,"、、，，，。On the other hand, Plutarch's love for anecdotes and witty sayings was also one of the reasons for the enduring charm of "Parallel Lives." As he said at the beginning of the biography of Theseus: "But if I could clarify the fictional legends and make them rational and historical in appearance, but if there are absurdities that are hard to change and not credible, then I can only ask the kind readers to take it as a story of the ancients." "Parallel Lives" was very popular during Plutarch's lifetime, which is almost certain. As a Greek philosopher and a follower of Plato's teachings, Plutarch often read papers and gave lectures in Rome. Greek was the common language of Roman writers and the upper class at the time, and cultured Greeks, especially philosophers, were well-received there. As a master of his generation, Plutarch was respected even then, and his works continued to be read and praised. Even in the Middle Ages, educated people in the Byzantine Empire were very familiar with his works. During the Renaissance, Plutarch's works were passed down to Italy by Byzantine scholars and translated into Latin and Italian by Italian humanists. During this period, "Parallel Lives" gained even wider dissemination. People began to imitate this format to write biographies, and numerous works praising the achievements of secular rulers and famous heroes emerged. Some of the most renowned biographies of the time included Petrarch's "Parallel Lives," Boccaccio's "Life of Dante," and Villani's "Lives of the Illustrious Men of Florence"。，，，。《》，，、。Research shows that during the Renaissance, Plutarch was second only to Plato in popularity in Europe, ranking second. French Renaissance literary masters La Fontaine and Montaigne were both deeply influenced by Plutarch's works, and their works were also directly influenced by Plutarch's writing style. In England, Plutarch influenced a large number of Renaissance writers and playwrights. Shakespeare's "Julius Caesar," "Antony and Cleopatra," and "Coriolanus" were directly inspired by Sir Thomas North's English translation of "Parallel Lives." After the 19, Plutarch's direct influence began to weaken. This was mainly due to the development of the industrial society and the rise of Romanticism, where people emphasized the free expression of thoughts and emotions and opposed classical restraint. However, the representatives of the German "Sturm und Drang" movement, Goethe and Schiller, and the composer Beethoven, were all avid readers of Plutarch's works. Marx began reading "Parallel Lives" in his youth. Even in the mid-19th century, the American transcendentalist writer Emerson still held Plutarch in the highest regard, deeply admiring his moral writings. Although "Parallel Lives of the Greeks and Romans" is not strictly a historical treatise, Plutarch had no intention of becoming an exacting historian, but as a classic of Western literature, it undoubtedly will long be cherished and loved by people of all generations, with readers of different eras discovering its unique value.