Cultural Interpretation of the Public Security Faction

Author: Yi Wenxiao / Country:
Publisher:
Publishing Time: 2003-05-01
Features: The profound advancement of interiorism. Island Sanchi once regarded the intellectual history after the emergence of Song Learning as "the history of the opposition and struggle between 'interior' and 'exterior'." Although Cheng Zhu also emphasized "interior," he still upheld the existence of "exterior." However, "the one who completelys the authority of 'exterior' and grants it to 'interior' is Wang Yangming" (Island Sanchi: "Cheng Zhu and Yangming Learning," pages 82-83, Shaanxi Normal University Press, 1986). The metaphysics of Yangming's mind learning gradually dissolves the metaphysical essence of Confucianism established by predecessors such as "Heavenly Principle" through the profound advancement of "interiorism" (Island Sanchi, ibid., page 94), ultimately leading to the emptiness of the "true mind" of Buddhism.
"Confucianism has always been a learning of both substance and application." (Yu Yingshi: "Modern Interpretations of the Chinese Intellectual Tradition," page 238, Jiangsu People's Publishing House, 1995). Its "application" is nothing more than governance, education, and human affairs, while its substance, though named differently, all traces back to "Heaven." "Heavenly Mandate," "Nature and Life"—these concepts are ancient. Mencius illustrated the goodness of mind and nature with the "Four Beginnings," taking "Heaven" as the ultimate basis, hence he said, "To preserve the mind and nurture nature is to serve Heaven," and also stated, "He who fully extends his mind knows his nature, and he who knows his nature knows Heaven" ("Mencius," "Extending the Mind Above"). "Nature" is the universal moral quality bestowed upon humans by "Heaven." The "Doctrine of the Mean" says, "Heaven's mandate is called nature." "Heavenly Mandate" refers to what Heaven bestows, and the goodness of human nature stems from this, making "Heavenly Mandate" the metaphysical ultimate basis for morality. It should be noted that although the concept of "Heaven" has been endowed with moral connotations in the original Confucian thought, the "natural" character inherent in "Heaven" has never been explicitly denied: the essence of the metaphysical concept of "Heavenly Mandate" lies in regarding the universal existence of morality as an undeniable and self-evident "natural law." Since "Heaven" is regarded as the ultimate basis for morality and "Heavenly Mandate" is endowed with the character of a metaphysical substance, benevolence, righteousness, propriety, and wisdom all originate from it, just as Mencius' "Four Beginnings." Only because its substance possesses the "natural" actuality can its "function" be realized, and only then can Confucianism, as a "learning of both substance and application," achieve its purpose of saving the world and fulfill its role in governance, education, and human affairs. It can be said that Confucianism has always been a "learning of human affairs," and its metaphysical inquiry and presuppositions are nothing more than the pursuit of practical goals in human affairs, which is the primary understanding we must clarify when discussing Confucianism.
"The revival of Song Confucianism was particularly evident in its emphasis on both substance and application" (Yu Yingshi, ibid.). The rigorous dialectics and highly systematic metaphysical construction it embodied were aimed at resisting the meticulous penetration and erosion of Buddhism into the depths of Confucianism. Cheng Zhu's establishment of the concept of "Heavenly Principle" and his theory of "extending knowledge through investigating things" based on the dialectical model of "one principle, many particular instances" were designed to prevent the "function" of Confucianism from falling into the "emptiness" of Buddhism. The term "Heavenly Principle" likely originated from the "Zhuangzi," where it referred to the natural texture: "To follow the Heavenly Principle and cut off the large joints" ("Nourishing Life"). Cheng Mingdao's "Heavenly Principle" was the "natural order of the laws of nature" (Kudo Yasuo: "Chinese Thought," page 16, China Social Sciences Press, 1995). "Heaven" retained its inherent natural actuality while also carrying the a priori moral content imposed upon it by predecessors, which then descended into the realm of governance through "moral governance," making "Heaven" the foundation of political laws. Thus, "Heavenly Principle" was not only the "righteous principle of the world that political governance should follow" but also the "essential nature of human morality" (ibid.). Therefore, the new meaning of the term "Heavenly Principle" may well be "a function that permeates nature, morality, and politics" (ibid.). In summary, as a newly established metaphysical substance of Confucianism, "Heavenly Principle" was an a priori, substantial existence that stood firmly at the pinnacle of Neo-Confucianism, stubbornly resisting the tendency of Confucianism to drift into the "emptiness" of Buddhism. Due to its persistent adherence to the fundamental spirit of moral salvation, the ethicalization of its metaphysics was inevitable, making "Heavenly Principle" in Zhu Xi a "moral humanism" and an "absolute command" (see Shou Jingnan: "The Grand Biography of Zhu Xi," Section 17, subsection 3). The reason it became an irresistible "absolute command" lay in the intrinsic connection between the moral essence and the natural laws mentioned above. It was precisely because "Heavenly Principle" provided a strong metaphysical guarantee that the primary proposition of Neo-Confucianism— "Nature is Principle"—could ensure the universal moral essence of human nature, thereby preventing the descent of human nature into "human desires." No one would doubt that "preserving Heavenly Principle and extinguishing human desires" was the established goal of Cheng Zhu's Neo-Confucianism, but acknowledging that "extinguishing human desires" requires "preserving Heavenly Principle" and upholding the supreme dignity of "Heavenly Principle" requires a dialectical understanding from the perspective of Neo-Confucianism.
The proposition "Nature is Principle" ensured communication between Heaven and humanity, while the basic dialectical model of "one principle, many particular instances" integrated the a priori metaphysical substance with the actual empirical world, thus avoiding the separation and disconnection between the two (Buddhism cuts off phenomena and only takes the true mind as the substance), ensuring the ubiquity of Heavenly Principle while preventing the subjective idealization of the objective world (Buddhism claims that all phenomena are empty). Since all existing things embody Heavenly Principle, they all possess the value of existence and are taken as objective objects of "extending knowledge through investigating things," and the reason for this is precisely this. Indeed, "extending knowledge through investigating things" aims ultimately at "cultivating oneself, harmonizing the family, governing the state, and pacifying the world," but the natural actuality of Heavenly Principle and the dialectical model of "one principle, many particular instances" confirm the inherent characteristics of things (everything has its principle). As a "learning of human affairs," Confucianism, with its strong historical consciousness, observes all things in the world, and its advocacy of "seeking the principles of things" through "intelligence" is an established tradition. The theory of "extending knowledge through investigating things" in Cheng Zhu's Neo-Confucianism is a continuation of this tradition, demonstrating a clear awareness of using research on things to serve the world. To some extent, it affirms the objective nature of things. Zhu Xi's theory of "extending knowledge through investigating things" actually "opened the way for objective understanding of things" (ibid., page 70).
From the above, it is evident that Neo-Confucianism retained and affirmed "exterior." This was indeed based on its practical spirit of "applied learning," but its rigorous dialectics also ensured that "exterior" did not escape its theoretical vision. The integrality of dialectics cannot be ignored—the organic connection between "interior" and "exterior" must be considered; moreover, the rigor and clarity of dialectics themselves imply a serious attitude toward knowledge, affirming and studying objective existence, and upholding the actuality and dignity of Heavenly Principle—all of which are closely related to a high degree of dialectics. In fact, "dialectics" has already been regarded as the "third characteristic of Song Learning" and highly praised (ibid., page 19); and perhaps to prevent Confucianism from falling into the delusions of Buddhism or drifting into the emptiness of Zen, "dialectics" itself might be the stance that Neo-Confucianism must uphold, although its dialectical methods were largely borrowed from the Huayan sect of Buddhism. It cannot be denied that the intuitive method of direct experience led Yangming's mind learning to ultimately pursue religious mysticism; its approach was the "profound advancement of interiorism," and thus "exterior" was completely dissolved in "interior," which is what Island Sanchi called the "opposition and struggle between 'interior' and 'exterior'." The "interior" refers to the "mind," or the "substance of the mind," such as the "innate knowledge." In Wang Yangming, it was regarded as the "master of heaven and earth and all things" ("Reply to Ji Mingde," "Collected Works of Wang Yangming," page 213, Shanghai, 1992), an absolute substance that "embodies heaven and earth and all things without omission, encompasses all things outside heaven and earth, and permeates all things within heaven and earth" ("Explanation of the Mind and Nature Chart"), and all phenomena in the universe are manifestations of the "actions of the mind." The "innate knowledge" is merely a habitual designation for the "substance of the mind"; it is the "spirit of creation that gives birth to heaven, earth, ghosts, and emperors" ("Record of Learning," Part 2). "Innate knowledge is just one" ("Record of Learning," Part 1), the "head" of all names in the Confucian learning of the sage, so recognizing innate knowledge is the firm belief of Wang Learning, and Huang Zongxi even said, "Master Wang restored the mind-body, and everything was accomplished at once" ("Biographies of the Ming Confucian Scholars," Volume 11, "Yaojiang Learning Case").
Although it can be said that innate knowledge originates from Heavenly Principle, connects emotions and intentions, permeates morality and actions, and is universally present in ethical things, forming a universal communication of "one body with all things," this "holistic grasp" is largely based on an intuitive, mystical intuition. From the perspective of metaphysical dialectics, however, the mind-body of innate knowledge has already suspended Heavenly Principle and isolated things. It displays a solitarily arrogant existence with the characteristics of self-sufficiency, self-reliance, and self-contentment, implying a kind of solipsism: in the universe, only innate knowledge stands, and there is nothing else. On the one hand, the proposition "there is no principle outside the mind" has freed Heavenly Principle from metaphysical constraints. Indeed, Yangming himself claimed, "The mind is what I have received from Heaven" ("Reply to Xu Chengzhi," ibid., page 9), so it can be said that "a priori moral law has been introduced into the mind-body," and thus "the mind presents itself as a necessary moral law" (Yang Guorong: "The Thought of Wang Learning," page 13, Joint Publishing Company, 1997). The famous proposition borrowed from Lu Jiuyuan—"mind is principle"—formally affirms the a priori existence and priority of Heavenly Principle, but it is precisely this proposition that dissolves Heavenly Principle into the "mind," suspending it and depriving it of its supreme authority as an "absolute command."
"Principle is the order of the mind" ("Letter to Zhu Yangbo," ibid., page 277). "Principle" descends from the metaphysical status of an absolute substance to the form of action of the "mind": without the "mind," "principle" is lost; with the "mind," "principle" exists, which is "there is no principle outside the mind." Thus, the "mind" has freed itself from the metaphysical constraints of the "absolute command" of Heavenly Principle and stands as an absolute substance, thereby fundamentally freeing its mind learning from the shadow of Cheng Zhu and establishing itself as a distinct school within Confucianism.
The dual nature of vulgar and noble personalities
Vulgar and noble, as opposite goals of personality, are unified in the unique personality of Yuan Hongdao. This combination depends on objective destiny and the internal and external synergy of subjective causes. The former refers to the dual nature of human existence that cannot be chosen—the coexistence of individuality and sociality (see Chapter 2, section ), which may lead to the coexistence of vulgar and noble personalities within an individual's inner spiritual structure: the desire to indulge in natural sensual desires in the real world of material things tends to forge a vulgar personality that neglects reason, while the long-term cultivation of rational consciousness in the human environment through sociality will foster a noble personality rich in cultural refinement; if an individual both desires the self-adjustment of natural sensual desires and has acquired relatively profound cultural refinement, then this individual will possess both vulgar and noble personalities. Yuan Hongdao is such a special individual existence, which is also due to his unique subjective conditions.
Regarding the vulgar aspect of his personality, Yuan Hongdao had an exceptionally vigorous life desire and a more lenient "spirit of nature" and ample courage, these innate spiritual characteristics of his mind were further inflamed and agitated like a drunken and in the wake of. Due to the immense tension of, his natural sensual desires as an individual life existence demanded strong self-indulgence, this demand made Yuan Hongdao's "id" fiercely break through the rational restraint of his "ego" and eagerly rushed toward the coarse material world. Thus, his vulgar personality was formed. The vulgar personality of Yuan Hongdao was manifested as a strong desire for the self-adjustment of sensual desires, that is, an obsessive pursuit of physical and material pleasures, especially sexual desire. He openly declared, "I love beauty" ("Farewell to Shi Qiu," Volume 9), frankly admitted, "I once had a fondness for young beauties" ("Li Xiangzhou, Compiler," Volume 42), and once praised "a red in the embrace" as "the best thing in the world" ("Gong Wei Xue, Mr.," Volume 5), proving that his love for beauty was not false. Among the five "true joys" or "five kinds of happiness" that he admired (see "Gong Wei Chang, Mr.," Volume 5), sexual desire was an extremely important part: in the "first joy," there was the "sexual indulgence" of "gazing at the beauty of the world"; in the "second joy," there was the "poetic and wine-tasting banter" of "male and female interaction"; in the "fourth joy," there was the "singing and playing of scholars" with "a band of music and several concubines" in a boat; even in the "fifth joy" of "a ragged body," there was the "sexual voyeurism" of "begging in a brothel."