Modern and Contemporary lay Buddhist studies

Author: Liu Chengyou
Publisher:
Publishing Date: 2002-09-01
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II. Domestic Politics' Impact on Traditional Buddhism
When Chinese Buddhism faced pressure from the international community, the ruling class domestically also did not adopt a tolerant policy toward Buddhism. Buddhism suffered political suppression within the country. This suppression mainly had two aspects: first, the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Movement's hostility and destruction toward Buddhism and other non-Christian doctrines; second, the government's deprivation of Buddhist temple properties under the guise of promoting education.
(1) The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom's Attack on Buddhism in Jiangnan
In the early days of the Qing Dynasty's founding, its Buddhist policy was basically a continuation of the Ming Dynasty's. Due to warfare and activities such as the anti-Qing and restoration of the Ming, many people took refuge in monasteries, leading to a decline in the quality of the Buddhist community. Spiritually, Buddhism was on the brink of collapse. After the Opium War, the invasion of imperialist powers further intensified existing national contradictions. The peasant uprising led by Hong Xiuquan began a grand movement for the revival of the Han nation. Hong Xiuquan, the leader of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, was born in Huaxian, Guangdong, in the 17th year of the Jiaqing reign (1812). He failed in the imperial examinations and later joined the God Worshipping Society founded by Zhu Jiuchou of the Ming Dynasty. After Zhu Jiuchou's death, he was recommended as the new leader of the God Worshipping Society. Later, the society was suppressed by the Qing government, and he fled to Hong Kong, joined the Jesus Society, and studied Christian doctrines under British missionary George Sturman. He then led the Xinhai Uprising in Western Jin Tian and swiftly swept across most of China, establishing the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom in Nanjing, proclaiming himself the Heavenly King, and making Nanjing the capital. Throughout the uprising, Christian thought played a significant role, and the momentum of the Taiping army's conquest was also related to their religious fervor. In the "Original Path to Enlightenment," Hong Xiuquan believed that the idea of "Yanluo Demon controlling life and death" was a fabrication absent in ancient Chinese classics and was instead the product of "strange people in Buddhism and Taoism." Therefore, based on his understanding of Christianity, he concluded: "There is no god except the Lord God. All wooden, clay, paper, and painted idols established in the world are later creations, human-made. Those who are deluded by demons and have their minds confused are the ones who invite the snake demons and Yanluo demons to ensnare them." From Hong Xiuquan's guiding ideology and the daily life of the Taiping army, it is clear that "Hong Xiuquan-style Christianity" had almost become the "national religion" of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom. Under this spiritual guidance, the Taiping army, wielding swords in their left hands and holding scriptures in their right, not only swept across most of China but also challenged traditional Chinese customs and thought, leaving Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism no exception, even facing opposition from Catholicism. Because Hong Xiuquan's Christianity mixed elements of Catholicism and Protestantism, particularly its opposition to idol worship, even the Virgin Mary images of Catholicism were among those destroyed, let alone Buddhist images. Therefore, wherever the Taiping army went, they destroyed temples, drove away monks and nuns, and did not spare the limited Buddhist scriptures, causing great damage to Buddhism in the Jiangnan region. As a result, when Yang Wenhui arrived in Nanjing in the fifth year of the Tongzhi reign (1866), he found that almost no Buddhist books were available to read. Without a cultural carrier, Buddhism's survival was precarious, on the brink of collapse. Mr. Wang Zhixin pointed out: "Since the Jia and Dao reigns, Buddhism has declined due to internal corruption and the influence of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, and it has been completely revitalized." Although not comprehensive, it indeed highlighted the severity of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom's impact on Buddhism.
(2) The Destruction of Buddhism Nationwide by "Buddhist Temple Property for Education"
The crisis of the Opium War prompted some insightful individuals to contemplate the path to a wealthy and strong nation. Among them were the radical views of the reformers and the conservative arguments of traditional guardians. Both sides clashed, stirring ripples in Chinese intellectual circles. At this time, Zhang Zhidong (1837–1909), synthesizing the opinions of both reformers and guardians, wrote the influential and widely acclaimed "Encouragement to Learning" in March 1898, proposing the concept of "promoting education to revitalize the nation," including the specific idea of "using Buddhist temple property for education": "There are tens of thousands of temples and monasteries in the world, with hundreds of districts, dozens of large counties, and ten or more small counties, all possessing land and property, which were all donated. If converted into schools, the buildings and land would be fully utilized. This is also a convenient and simple measure. At present, Western religions are flourishing, while Buddhism and Taoism are declining. Their decline cannot last long. Buddhism is already in the middle of its final Dharma, and Taoism also faces the worry of being neither divine nor spiritual. If Confucianism can be revitalized, China will be peaceful, and Buddhism and Taoism will also be protected. Generally, in each county, seven-tenths of the temple and monastery property should be converted into schools, leaving three-tenths for monks and nuns. The land and property converted into schools should be used seven-tenths by the schools and three-tenths by monks and nuns. If the value of the land and property is calculated, the government should commend and reward monks and nuns. Those who do not wish to be rewarded can be rewarded with official positions for their relatives. In this way, all schools can be established in one day."
IV. Interpreting Confucianism and Taoism Through Buddhism
As a Chinese intellectual, Yang Wenhui's idea of reviving Buddhism inevitably involved the relationship with traditional Confucianism and Taoism. In this regard, Yang Wenhui's approach was quite clear: from the perspective of Buddhism, he adopted the methods of "interpreting Confucianism through Buddhism" and "interpreting Taoism through Buddhism" to integrate the thoughts of Confucianism and Taoism into Buddhism. Regarding Confucianism, Yang Wenhui basically adopted the measure of "respecting Confucius but suppressing Mencius," only acknowledging that the "heart method of Confucius and Yan" could be integrated with Buddhist principles, while he generally took a negative stance toward Mencius and the Neo-Confucian scholars of the Song and Ming dynasties. He highly praised the passage in the "Analects" where Confucius said: "Is there anything I know? I do not know. A petty man asked me, and I was empty. I probed both ends and exhausted it." He believed that the basic thought in this passage was highly consistent with Buddhist principles: "The unknowing is the void of Prajna. Emotion and the emotionless all take this as their essence. Even when encountering inferior conditions, one should respond according to one's own nature. The petty man's attachment does not go beyond the two ends—what exists and does not exist, difference and non-difference, both and neither, permanence and impermanence. Confucius probed both ends and exhausted his deluded knowledge, so how is the petty man's emptiness different from Confucius' unknowing?" He also said: "True knowledge is unknowing yet knowing, and Dharma-tathagata's answer to Emperor Wu of Liang was 'not knowing,' which reveals the true present experience. Confucius said: 'Is there anything I know? I do not know.' This opens the trace and reveals the essence. At this level, Confucianism and Buddhism share the same origin, and disputes cease." As for Mencius, Yang Wenhui believed him to be "not yet entering the hall of Confucius" and that "with the ego not broken, he is still two levels away from Confucius and Yan." As for the Neo-Confucianism of the Song and Ming dynasties, with its "Zhou Zhang Cheng Zhu's heart method, the initial level has not yet been broken," it is even farther from the purpose of Confucius and Yan, let alone Buddhist principles. Regarding Taoism, Yang Wenhui also adopted the same approach, interpreting four books—The Hidden Meanings of the Yin Fu Jing, the Dao De Jing, the Chuang Xū Jing, and the Nan Hua Jing—and explaining them. He believed that these Taoist texts "are truly in harmony with Buddhist scriptures" and that their words may be different, but their meanings are interconnected." In Yang Wenhui's view, the Taoist texts "discuss either worldly or transcendent matters. The transcendent teachings are either shallow or profound. The shallow ones do not go beyond the celestial vehicle, while the profound ones reach the Buddhist realm. Therefore, we know that Laozi, Liezi, and Zhuangzi all flowed against the suffering sea of Saha and emerged into the world, blending with the common people and teaching the five vehicles (the human vehicle, the celestial vehicle, the voice-hearer vehicle, the bodhisattva vehicle, and the Buddha vehicle), enabling all sentient beings to benefit according to their roots. Later interpreters, confined to one path, could never fully grasp the profound meanings of the Three Sages." He essentially equated Taoist principles with Buddhist teachings. Of course, Yang Wenhui did not value Taoism's pursuit of longevity, as Buddhism's "directly severing the root of life" and the idea that "once the root of life is severed, there is no rebirth" were clearly superior to Confucianism. It was precisely based on this understanding that Yang Wenhui initially studied both Buddhism and Taoism but eventually focused solely on Buddhism. If he had lived longer, he would have realized the profound and subtle nature of Buddhist principles, which encompass all teachings without exception." After all, it still comes back to Buddhism being superior. Of course, this is the culmination of Yang Wenhui's Buddhist thought. In summary, Yang Wenhui's understanding of (Pure Land belief) differed from traditional Buddhist beliefs, as it incorporated elements of the times and reflected a certain spirit of the era, such as the emphasis on the dual forces of self and others, which demonstrated a certain level of harmony. "Teaching" (Teaching Xianshou) reflects Yang Wenhui's grasp of the harmonious spirit of Buddhism, treating all Buddhist schools equally, which actually shows his understanding and respect for the modern spirit of equality. As for his publication and promotion of the classics of Yogācāra and Pramā?a, his contribution to the revival of modern Yogācāra was pioneering, which can also be seen as his active response to the modern rationalist trend. It is precisely in this sense that we can truly understand the meaning of "the father of modern Buddhist revival." Of course, Yang Wenhui's emphasis on the three schools of (Pure Land), (Huayan), and (Yogācāra) was not uniform. His emphasis on was largely based on the practical needs of Buddhist practice, focusing on the purpose of Buddhist practice. As for his emphasis on and promotion of and , to a certain extent, reflected his choices in Buddhist principles and the reflection of the spirit of the times, and belonged to the category of "" (learning and practice), serving as auxiliary means to achieve the goals of Buddhist practice.
The Modern Characteristics of Yang Wenhui's Buddhist Thought
As a typical representative of Chinese lay Buddhist thought in the late Qing Dynasty, Yang Wenhui's Buddhist thought had distinct individual characteristics and modern features. Without Yang Wenhui, the later revival of Chinese lay Buddhism would be unthinkable; without the rise of lay Buddhism in the late Qing and early Republican era, the history of the revival of modern Chinese Buddhism would also be rewritten. As for Yang Wenhui's personal contributions, Huang Chanhua once said: "After the Jiaqing reign, Buddhism declined and was not revitalized. It then suffered repeated wars, and temples and scriptures were destroyed, leaving only a thread of Buddhism that vanished. Soon after, Master Yang Wenhui emerged, inheriting the great cause of Zibai, publishing single-volume Buddhist scriptures, spreading Buddhism throughout the country, and widely seeking lost ancient texts overseas. Thus, the commentaries of the great masters of the Sui and Tang sects returned to China, reviving a century-old lost art and bringing Chinese Buddhism into a new era." This evaluation is basically fair. The reason it is called "basic" is that this evaluation does not focus on Yang Wenhui's Buddhist thought, giving the impression that his contributions were limited to some Buddhist activities. But in fact, this is not entirely the case.
IV. The Rational Demand for Discerning Truth from Falsehood
In Ouyang Jian's choice and integration of the Dharma, based on the two principles of establishing "Human Learning" and "Western Learning," inspired by the scientific rational spirit of the times, there was a clear rational demand for discerning truth from falsehood. This was both related to Ouyang Jian's own temperament and his early education, of course, and more related to the changing trends of the times. Ouyang Jian lost his father in his early years and later received education under the care of his uncle, Songqing Gong. His uncle's personality traits and educational methods greatly influenced his later thoughts and actions. According to Ouyang Jian himself, the formation of his "fear not to neglect small matters" style in his life was directly related to his uncle's upbringing: "I once had books exposed to the sun, and I casually wiped them without paying attention. Suddenly, my uncle yelled in anger: 'How can you not help others?' Holding a bundle of tight whips, he beat the sound throughout the courtyard. I trembled and was startled, my soul almost leaving my body. From then on, for decades, I did not neglect small matters, and I gave up difficult matters." "Fear not to neglect small matters" means that he adopted a very serious attitude toward everything, which undoubtedly had a direct origin in his later pursuit of truth in studying the Dharma. Even when "religion was excluded as learning" and "learning was excluded as religion," Ouyang Jian did not lose heart, believing that his "unique melody" was still in harmony with the Dharma. Because his conclusion was not speculative but based on extensive analysis and serious research, it had a solid empirical basis. The formation of Ouyang Jian's rational Buddhist characteristics of "discerning truth from falsehood" was also rooted in the changing trends of the times. With the gradual establishment of China's new educational system in the modern era, many Western natural science education gradually replaced traditional classical education, and accordingly, the spirit of scientific empiricism gradually took the dominant position in the intellectual circles. Although the great debate between science and the philosophy of life occurred in the early 20th century, it was basically an advertisement for science, as described by Hu Shi in the preface to "Science and the Philosophy of Life" in 1923: "In the past thirty years, there has been a term that has almost reached the highest level of dignity in the country. Whether people understand it or not, whether they are conservative or reformist, none dare openly show disdain or ridicule toward it. That term is 'science.' Such near-universal belief in it may or may not be valuable, but at least we can say that since China has been talking about reform and innovation, no self-proclaimed new figure has dared to openly denounce 'science.'" Under this background, the worship of scientific methods quickly dominated Chinese intellectual circles, and the result was that science had degenerated into a slogan, embraced and promoted by various ideological schools with fundamentally different views. Developed to this extent, the scientific spirit had become scientism, and it almost controlled the entire intellectual world. Against this backdrop, Ouyang Jian's Buddhist studies could not be immune from the influence of scientism. It was precisely this "scientific supremacy" of the times, combined with the spirit of "fear not to neglect small matters" cultivated from a young age, that allowed Ouyang Jian to maintain a vigorous spirit of seeking truth throughout his life: he turned from studying Neo-Confucianism to studying the mind of Lu Wang; he turned from studying the mind of Lu Wang to studying Buddhism; when studying Buddhism, he gradually improved because he was not satisfied with The Awakening of Faith, Yoga, and Prajna, ultimately reaching the realm of "complete and thorough Buddhist principles, with no remaining Nirvana, and infinite methods of the Three Wisdoms and Three Gradual Progressions," and further integrating Buddhism and Confucianism. Every elevation in Ouyang Jian's thought was accompanied by his careful study of the classics, reflecting his pursuit of the rational spirit of "discerning truth from falsehood." Ouyang Jian's rational demand for "discerning truth from falsehood" was also clearly reflected in the specific teaching and research activities of the Chinese Inner Academy he founded. At a research meeting of the Chinese Inner Academy, Ouyang Jian laid down two provisions for the nature of the academy's research: first, "different from the ordinary transmission between teachers and disciples. The research here also follows the continuation of the transmission of the Dharma"; second, "different from the world. In the world, things are from the majority, hoping they can coexist harmlessly without seeking thoroughness. But when we speak of learning, we must seek the true image everywhere, and everywhere must be judged by the Dharma." "Following the Dharma to obtain the true image" as the basic requirement of the Chinese Inner Academy's research clearly reflects the value pursuit of Ouyang Jian's Buddhist thought. Therefore, in the learning subjects he set up for the Chinese Inner Academy, he included Yogācāra, Pramā?a, Indian philosophy, Indian history, Buddhist legal studies, Buddhist psychology, Buddhist art, Sanskrit, Tibetan, English, and Japanese literature, Indian philosophy, Buddhist legal studies, Buddhist psychology, Buddhist art, Sanskrit