Modern and Contemporary: Studying Confucianism through Buddhism

Author: Li Yuanjie
Publisher:
Publishing Date: 2002-09-01
Features: Deqing's integration of Confucianism and Buddhism shows a strong tendency toward the unification of the two teachings. He emphasizes the similarities between Confucianism and Buddhism, possibly aiming to secure Buddhism's survival within orthodox Confucianism. However, it should be noted that Deqing's way of integrating Confucianism and Buddhism is based on Buddhist thought. He consistently uses Chan Buddhist concepts to encompass Confucianism. The idea of "" (same heart and reason) is actually the same as the heart and reason of Chan Buddhism. Therefore, "" (all schools returning to their origin) ultimately means returning to the heart and reason of Chan Buddhism in Buddhism. Thus, "" is indeed the unification of all teachings under Buddhism. His stance of subordinating Confucianism to Buddhism is clear. The late Qing Dynasty's "Chinese learning for essence, Western learning for application" trend not only initiated modernization but also set the precedent for cultural conservatism. Although it failed in practice, it became an enduring specter on the stage of modern Chinese thought, as it involved a profound historical dilemma concerning modernization and national identity that could not be resolved overnight. However, under the threat of foreign encroachment, the wheels of modern Chinese history could not pause for repairs and moved forward hastily. In the late 19th century, the reformists inherited the legacy of the radical Self-Strengthening Movement and launched a new wave of reforms, taking steps toward cultural value transformation. Yan Fu, who studied in Britain, observed the systematic nature of Western civilization and stated: "Chinese learning has its own body and application, Western learning has its own body and application. Separate them, and they stand alone; combine them, and both perish." He proposed that civil society, public wisdom, and moral integrity are the foundation of national strength and the key to China's salvation lies in changing customs and hearts. Yan Fu's vigorously introduced and promoted social organic theory and theory of evolution became the vanguard of China's cultural enlightenment movement. In the early 20th century, the introduction of a large number of Western modern social and political theories became a new focus of the Eastward spread of Western learning, and the influence of French Enlightenment thought grew increasingly significant. Meanwhile, traditional intellectuals were also reflecting on Confucian culture. Kang Youwei of the reformist school, under the guise of "reviving ancient traditions," aimed to implement reforms, and his Confucian reform movement, which advocated "respecting Confucius," was fundamentally at odds with traditional Confucianism. Tan Sitong's Renshu (Book of Benevolence) fiercely criticized traditional rites and ethics, believing that ethical reform should be the foundation of reform. The Three Cardinal Guides and Five Constant Virtues were seen as tools for subjugating the people and suppressing their minds, calling for "breaking through the net" and the strong voice of anti-tradition and enlightenment. Liang Qichao also criticized the intellectual authoritarianism and moral codes of Confucianism, arguing: "Since the Qin and Han dynasties, Confucianism has been unified. While the excellence of Confucianism is undeniable, it is also true that forcing the thoughts of a nation into one path has done the most harm to progress." The revolutionary faction was radical in politics but more moderate in culture and did not completely reject Confucianism, which was determined by their cultural nationalism. The mainstream tendency was to respect Confucius while abandoning his rites and ethics. However, Zhang Taiyan within the revolutionary faction fiercely criticized Confucianism, pointing out in his Rectification of Confucianism that the greatest flaw of Confucianism was its tendency to make people pursue high-ranking positions and material gains. He believed: "The moral integrity of the people has declined greatly today. The words of Ji and Kong no longer have the power to turn things around, even Confucianism is no longer sufficient to uphold the world." The anarchists, who combined political radicalism with cultural radicalism, openly adopted the slogan of "expelling Confucius," following the reformists and revolutionaries in suppressing Confucianism. The anarchist "revolution of Confucius" became the precursor to the anti-Confucian movement of the May Fourth Movement. The radical cultural trend of total Westernization rose and spread. With the decline of the centralized monarchy, the weakening of Confucian orthodoxy foreshadowed the rise of various heterodox thoughts and the trend toward pluralistic values. A new landscape of competing schools of thought was gradually forming. Although the Hundred Days' Reform failed, it was a massive blow to autocratic monarchy and Confucian cultural hegemony. After the Xinhai Revolution ended the imperial system, the (carrier) on which Confucianism relied collapsed, and its value system naturally disintegrated. As Wang Enyang reflected: "The destruction and rejection of Confucianism began with the of Lu Wang (Chan Buddhism and Pure Land Buddhism), followed by the of Cheng Zhu (Neo-Confucianism), then the of Han Wei (Han and Wei dynasties), and ultimately the fundamental destruction and slander of the Tang and Zhou dynasties and Confucius and Mencius. Then, Neo-Confucianism replaced Mindology, Han Studies replaced Song Studies, and Modern Confucianism replaced Ancient Confucianism, with the Classics replaced by historical studies. Then, Western theories and trends surged into China, and the people followed them, with the teachings of Confucius and Mencius completely overturned. Confucianism was abandoned, and people only knew science and philosophy. It began with layer upon layer of restoration, followed by a complete overthrow. The era of the Manchu Dynasty was an age of great restoration and fierce revolution." The May Fourth Movement's banners of "democracy" and "science" clearly aligned with the main melody of modern society, standing in stark contrast to the old tunes of Confucianism and Mencius. The May Fourth New Culture Movement was an effort to rebuild Chinese culture and a farewell to traditional culture as a whole. However, Chen Duxiu's radical cultural proposals, such as advocating the abolition of Confucianism and Taoism as the fundamental solution to saving China and making the Chinese nation a civilized nation of the 20th century, seemed overly hasty and lacked a sense of historical responsibility and seriousness. Nevertheless, led by Chen, the pioneers of the New Culture Movement's overall rejection of Confucianism made the effort to transform the value system of Confucianism, as a feudal ideological symbol system, into a modern value system. This effort was commendable. Although Confucianism and some ethical norms of Confucianism still held moral value, their orthodox status had been completely overturned, and even Buddhism had to defend its existence and seek a way forward in the face of modern rationalism. It is worth noting that the Nationalist government in the 1930s and 1940s promoted Confucianism and emphasized propriety, integrity, frugality, and humility, which led to a certain resurgence in the status of Confucianism. This was also a significant external impetus for the Buddhist community to subordinate Confucianism to Buddhism and promote the unity of Buddhism and Confucianism. The Nationalist Party also held a tolerant attitude toward the development of Buddhism. This further shows that in the then society, which was heavily influenced by feudal and semi-colonial characteristics, Confucianism still had its adaptability, and the subordination of Confucianism to Buddhism in modern times was a product of specific historical conditions. Traditional Chinese intellectuals had long been influenced by Confucianism, which had become deeply rooted in their worldview and an inescapable emotional attachment. Therefore, scholars and monks who subordinated Confucianism to Buddhism all came from Confucian backgrounds and had received Confucian education in their early years. The subordination of Confucianism to Buddhism can be considered a part of traditional culture and a unique expression of traditional personality. This is the sociocultural psychology that cannot be ignored in the subordination of Confucianism to Buddhism in modern times. In the early 20th century, the revival of Buddhism occurred against the backdrop of such profound social changes and cultural reconstruction. This context determined that the renewal of Buddhism must adapt to the historical trend of modernization, shaping the new characteristics and basic direction of modern and contemporary Buddhism. It also determined the historical possibility of repositioning the relationship between Buddhism and Confucianism. Ouyang Jingwu emphasized education, discussing the teacher-student relationship in Buddhist education, the stages of Buddhist research methods, and the scriptures. He vigorously promoted lay Buddhist learning. He proposed a series of shocking and controversial views, such as distinguishing between Huayan and Yogacara, denying the theory of Tathagatagarbha in favor of the theory of Alaya-vij?ana, which sparked intense debates. He wrote on the integration of the Two Truths and Three Natures, merging the Prajnaparamita school with the Yogacara school, emphasized the importance of practicing mind methods in his Outline of Mindology, and summarized the teachings of Nirvana, advocating the Bodhisattva spirit of non-attachment to Nirvana in Mahayana Buddhism. Ouyang Jingwu's integration of Confucianism was based on his Buddhist views. (3) Ouyang Jian's thought of subordinating Confucianism to Buddhism In his later years, Ouyang Mr. lived during the War of Resistance Against Japan. He felt that the Buddhist teachings were insufficient and sought to elucidate the learning of Confucius and Mencius for practical application, benefiting the nation and its people. Although he believed that Buddhism was perfect for both worldly and transcendent realms, it was more suitable for the national conditions and had greater influence to discuss worldly matters from the perspective of Confucianism. Therefore, understanding and interpreting the spirit of Confucianism from the perspective of Buddhism became an important aspect of Ouyang Mr.'s thought. Through his reinterpretation of the classics of Confucianism, Ouyang not only believed he had rediscovered and clarified the original meaning of Confucianism but also affirmed the interconnectedness and mutual verification between Confucianism and Buddhism. However, in the end, Ouyang still emphasized reaching Buddhism from Confucianism, believing that Buddhism was superior to Confucianism and that it was actually to subordinate Confucianism to Buddhism. The main works related to this include Eleven Chapters of the Analects, Ten Chapters of the Mencius, The Doctrine of the Mean, Commentary on the Great Learning by Wang, The Transmission of the Doctrine of the Mean, Lessons on the Analects, and Lessons on the Mencius. 1. Advocating the spirit of Confucius and Mencius, criticizing the harm of hypocrisy. In The Preface to the Eleven Chapters of the Analects written by Ouyang Jingwu in 1931, he proposed that Confucian classics were not compiled and had been ravaged by war, making it difficult to grasp the true spirit of Confucianism. However, "if there is a sage in the East, this heart is the same, and this principle is the same; if there is a sage in the West, this heart is the same, and this principle is the same." The true meaning of Confucianism could be understood through Buddhism. He criticized those who did not understand integration: "They say this is Chan, not the sage; they die in the constraints of sects, allowing all fragrant flowers to wither." He boldly proposed, "If one can master the inner classics and be skilled in Prajnaparamita, can the way of literature and martial arts not remain on the earth?" Expressing his intention to interpret Confucianism through Buddhism. He compared Buddhist Prajnaparamita with Confucianism, stating: "Prajnaparamita directly illuminates the mind, as does Confucius, who was not content with food and was not happy with music, everything arising from the mind." "Prajnaparamita is separate from words and meaning, as is Confucius, who is separate from words and meaning, known as 'when things are born, there is no speech.'" "Prajnaparamita is ignorant, as is Confucius, who is ignorant, known as 'asking about emptiness, emptiness, asking to the end.'" "Prajnaparamita is similar and successive, as is Confucius, who is similar and successive, known as 'the passing one is like this, day and night without stopping.'" He used words from the Analects to argue for the compatibility of Confucianism and Prajnaparamita. He summarized: "Without fully understanding the mind and nature, one cannot understand heaven; without understanding heaven's nature as heaven, one cannot understand people; without understanding people's nature as people, one cannot understand benevolence. Benevolence is a person, and this is what Confucius is." Thus, he defined the core of Confucius's thought as benevolence. Unlike his teacher Yang Renshan, who belittled Mencius, Ouyang Jingwu highly praised Mencius. In The Preface to the Ten Chapters of the Mencius, he believed that Mencius's book was brilliant and enlightening, "The majestic spirit of righteousness, gathered from righteousness, is why Confucius spoke of benevolence, and Mencius spoke of righteousness." That is to say, the core of Mencius's thought is righteousness. "What makes a person a person is the spirit and the integrity." "Inherent goodness, righteousness is internal, the four ends are inherent, and all things are complete." Mencius emphasized starting from one's own heart, and "to the extent that it is fully realized, it is fully realized." Ouyang believed that Mencius's teachings were "the continuation of Confucius's learning," and Confucius's learning was sincere, while Mencius's learning was simple and quick. "In the face of national survival, the distinction between righteousness and profit must not be unclear. Therefore, he particularly praised Mencius: 'The only one who can awaken the deaf today is Mencius!'" He believed that since Mencius, the true spirit of Confucianism had been lost. He thought: "Confucius's true spirit, if measured by the boundary between righteousness and profit, is it!" That is to say, clarifying the boundary between righteousness and profit and prioritizing righteousness over profit is the core of Confucian thought. "If the boundary between righteousness and profit is not clear, then for two thousand years, the world has been in darkness, repeatedly trapped, and has reached today." Ouyang's "today" refers to his time, when benevolence and righteousness were not advocated, and hypocrisy was widely followed, so "the country is in such danger, and the people are in such a state." At the beginning of Lessons on the Analects, he said: "If one cannot find a person of the mean, one must seek a or a fanatical. A is enterprising, and a fanatical does not do certain things. Hypocrisy is a thief of virtue." He strongly criticized the harm of hypocrisy, believing that hypocrisy was a misunderstanding of the Doctrine of the Mean and a false Confucianism. "For two thousand years, the way of Confucius has been abandoned, and the teaching of hypocrisy has prevailed. Confucius sought the way, not food, while hypocrisy followed the crowd and became dirty. Mencius gave up his life for righteousness, while hypocrisy twisted learning to please the world." In Letter to Tao Minshi, he pointed the finger directly at the traditional Confucianism of over a thousand years: "For over a thousand years, the teachings of later Confucians have prevailed, and the teachings of the sage have been obscure. The study of famous sentences has followed, and the actual practice has been neglected." "For over a thousand years, the Doctrine of the Mean has not been clear, people do not pursue sincerity, lose their original minds, the great principles are not implemented, and the majestic spirit is not present, no longer part of the human world." "The unclear understanding of the extension of things has led to the non-practice of sage learning for over a thousand years." Later Confucians refer to Confucianism since the Tang and Song dynasties. Ouyang believed that because they misunderstood the Doctrine of the Mean, the core principles of benevolence, righteousness, integrity, and the extension of things advocated by Confucius and Mencius were all obscured, leaving only empty words and neglecting practice. The way of benevolence and righteousness was abandoned and not advocated. The neglect of benevolence and righteousness led to the widespread practice of hypocrisy. Therefore, "if the world is without principle, there is no principle, then there is no person, then there is no government, then the world is in chaos, and it may even perish." Furthermore, Ouyang replaced hypocrisy with. A is to give up one's life for righteousness, while hypocrisy is to give up righteousness for life. "True Confucius considers the Doctrine of the Mean, while false Confucians consider hypocrisy the Doctrine of the Mean. True Confucius's Doctrine of the Mean returns to practicality, while false Confucians's Doctrine of the Mean has only beautiful words, the simple are lost in confusion, and the cunning use it." In his view, the Doctrine of the Mean was not a compromise without principles or a clear distinction between righteousness and profit. For two thousand years, the Doctrine of the Mean had been distorted and twisted by hypocrisy, leading to superficial words that misled the masses and were exploited by cunning people. This false Confucianism made the people lose their integrity, and the country lost its spirit, causing endless harm. He furiously pointed out that the reason for the betrayal of the Han during the War of Resistance Against Japan lay in the hypocrisy of the Doctrine of the Mean. "Since the Tang and Song dynasties, all Confucians have deviated from Mencius and followed hypocrisy, which is why they produced hypocrisy and chaos." "For thousands of years, hypocrisy in the Doctrine of the Mean could not but propose in the Doctrine of the Mean." " in the Doctrine of the Mean, the boundary between righteousness and profit is strict, the way of obtaining resources is wide; hypocrisy in the Doctrine of the Mean, the reality of righteousness and profit is chaotic, the way of obtaining resources is blocked. - To say that no excess or deficiency is the mean, then it is vague and elusive, with no place to step. - To say that the ordinary is the mean, then it follows the crowd and floats, with no gathering to pull out." To say that no excess or deficiency is the mean, then what is excess and what is deficiency? Empty words without substance, not grounded, so in practice, it is still confused and inconsiderate, without rules to follow, and no place to step. To say that the ordinary is the mean, then it provides an excuse to follow the crowd and creates mediocre people, while suppressing outstanding talents. Hypocrisy in the Doctrine of the Mean "seems like righteousness but is actually profit" while in the Doctrine of the Mean "is a separate path." Ouyang believed that for thousands of years, the lack of heroes and heroism was due to the distortion of the Doctrine of the Mean by false Confucianism and hypocrisy. Only by advocating the true Doctrine of the Mean and replacing hypocrisy with can countless heroes who give up their lives for righteousness and stand tall in the sky be produced.