Zhang Dai research

Author: Hu Yimin
Publisher:
Publishing Date: 2004-03-01
Features: The current state of research on Zhang Dai, as a whole, has made certain progress over the past two decades, but it has basically concentrated only on his prose creation. The breadth and depth, especially in the collection and application of original materials, are far from sufficient and urgently need in-depth expansion. In view of this, this paper intends to start with the basic sorting of materials and conduct a comprehensive study of Zhang Dai as a person and scholar. The main content includes the organization and interpretation of Zhang Dai's academic thought—encompassing philosophy, literary-aesthetic theory, and historiography—as well as the investigation of his life, family background, and social relationships. The empirical research on Zhang Dai constitutes the core content of the second part, while the exploration of his academic thought forms the first part. The two parts are interwoven, organically combined, and mutually complementary. In the writing process, efforts are made to integrate the macro and micro perspectives while unifying history and logic. Starting from primary sources, a comprehensive study of Zhang Dai is a brand-new topic, and the collection, verification, textual interpretation, and theoretical discussion of the materials all pose considerable challenges.
At the time of the Ming-Qing transition, the world was in turmoil, and the pursuit of sainthood, enlightenment, integrity, or righteousness was no longer the empty talk of corrupt Confucians or hypocritical gentlemen who merely in the "Chapter on Sincerity" (as quoted in The Light of the). Instead, it required tangible action, even if it meant risking one's life in the face of right and wrong. Zhang Dai's theory of style, his special personality, and his understanding of human nature were deeply marked by the era of the Ming and Qing dynasties. In his view, "those who are cold and opportunistic in their attitudes toward power and profit" were traitors to art and were not worthy of discussing art with. Only those who could "elevate their aspirations" and maintain unblemished character in the face of right and wrong could achieve true artistic success. This can be exemplified by his criticism of Ruan Dachen.
In terms of literary talent alone, Ruan Dachen should be considered among the mid-to-high echelon of Ming-era literati (see the relevant discussions by modern scholars such as Chen Yinluo and Wu Mei). Zhang Dai had even a brief association with him in his youth (as evidenced by the two poems titled "Ruan Yuanhai's Overnight Stay" in Zhangzi's Poetic Fragments and two five-line poems titled "Zhang Zongzi, Lü Jishi, Yao Jianshu, and Qi Zhongji's Mountain Visit" in Ruan's Poems of the Yonghuai Pavilion, written in 1638). Zhang Dai highly praised Ruan's talent for drama, believing that the plays he wrote and performed were "excellent in every aspect—every scene, every line, every word" (Dream of the Studio of Tao'an: Ruan Yuanhai's Plays). However, because of Ruan's betrayal—his submission to the Qing and his compromise on major principles—Zhang Dai showed him no mercy. Even in the context of drama, Zhang Dai argued that Ruan's "excellence" lay primarily in technique, while the content revealed his "restlessness of heart." He stated that Ruan's plays were "seventeen parts satirical and thirteen parts self-mocking," often denouncing the Donglin Party and defending the Wei Party (Dream of the Studio of Tao'an: Postscripts to the Stone Coffin, vol. 8). In the Postscripts to the Stone Coffin, he more explicitly condemned: "During the reign of the former emperor, Ruan Dachen often sought to clear the names of traitors; after the northern rebellion, he became like a caged tiger set free, roaring without restraint." He called Ruan a "person who swallows milk and becomes a mother to those who stole a cow," comparing him to "thieves who steal a cow." From his evaluation of Ruan Dachen, it is clear that Zhang Dai's art criticism was not detached from content or the specific historical context, nor was it a mere discussion of form or art for art's sake. Instead, it was a comprehensive judgment based on the principle that "a person's character determines the quality of their art." This is undoubtedly a point worth full affirmation.
Related to this is Zhang Dai's great emphasis on the "literary conduct and reputation" of scholars. Confucius said, "When a state is unjust, to be rich and noble is a shame." Like most upright and resolute literati of the feudal era, Zhang Dai took this value very seriously. He would rather be a "scholar in dire straits" than accept "handouts" or compromise with unjust rulers. This was his attitude toward life and also one of the criteria he used to judge people and appreciate art. In volume 209 of The Stone Coffin, under the "Biography of Recluses," he summarized: "Recluses are not something that the wealthy and vulgar can bear, nor are they something that the wealthy and 'refined' can pursue. To adhere strictly to moral principles and maintain an elevated spirit is an achievement that is difficult to attain in life. And as a true artist, one must certainly possess such a state of mind." This is evident in his evaluation of his friend Lu Yungu: "Zhangzi said: [Lu] Yungu has an elevated and expansive heart. Nothing in the world of fickleness and opportunism can enter his mind. Therefore, even though he was unlearned in literature, he had a poetic spirit; though unskilled in painting, he had an artistic sense; though living in the market, he had a mountain-and-forest spirit." Lu Yungu was merely an ordinary folk healer and landscape artist. With Zhang Dai's consistent style of "seeing the big picture, facing things with a cold demeanor, and having a firm heart," his praise here can be considered quite high. The reason lies in his adherence to the principle of "character," which, as he believed, was indeed the case. No person of low character could produce truly enduring works. From this perspective, his The Stone Coffin: Biography of Literary Figures presents evaluations of Ming-era literary figures that differ greatly from those in the official Ming Shi: Biography of Literary Figures, the General Catalogue of the Four Treasuries, and the often mediocre standards of private historical works. He had a profound insight (see Appendix II).
In the preface to Biographies of Righteous Figures Throughout the Ages, he wrote: "I secretly agree with the views on righteous figures. When I read about their spirited and magnanimous nature, their indifference to tigers and wolves, and their indifference to boiling water and iron pots, my face grows red, my ears burn, my eyes tear and my hair stands on end, as if a tied person shivers upon waking, trembling and unable to compose myself. My emotions run so deep that I am not far behind them!" Because of his deep affection for those who stood firm in righteousness, even at the age of eighty-four, hewrote Praise for the Three Immortals of the Ming in Yue, adding those who died for their loyalty in the late Ming period to the book to honor them. In his view, "loyal ministers and righteous men often appear when a country is destroyed and homes are lost, like striking a stone to start a fire—bright for a moment and then extinguished" (Zhangzi's Poetic Fragments, vol. 8). They urgently need to be celebrated.
This applies to people as well as to poetry and literature, where he emphasized the importance of "substance" and "spirit." In the postscript to One Volume of Ice and Snow, he wrote: "The ice and snow of literature lie in its substance and spirit. Therefore, the ancients used jade tothe substance and autumn water tothe spirit, already capturing the essence. As for poetry, its sinews, bones, and veins, its limbs and bones, must be nourished by the spirit of ice and snow, or else the poetry will not be good."
Art works are created by people, so the moral character of the creator directly determines the quality of the work to a significant extent. At the time of national decline, Zhang Dai placed particular emphasis on the "aura of righteousness" (Zhangzi's Poetic Fragments) and the "great righteousness" of "not surrendering oneself" and "not dishonoring one's aspirations" (Letter of Mutual Farewell with Qi Shipei). During the Ming dynasty, literary styles flourished, and private literary collections were abundant. Scholars, high officials, and even wealthy merchants had their own collections. When writing The Stone Coffin, Zhang Dai expressed his frustration: "Family collections pour in like clouds, so many and so tedious." Compared to the official Ming Shi, his selections were highly selective and rigorous. More importantly, his evaluations often revealed insights others had not noticed, showing his unique discernment. If one combines the moving biographies, prefaces, and postscripts in the collection with the chapters on "Recluses," "Exquisite Arts," and "Solitary Travelers" in The Stone Coffin and its Postscripts, one can conclude that his criteria for evaluating literature and art were the works themselves, regardless of whether the authors were humble market dwellers or Buddhist monks. As long as they maintained "great integrity," they were treated equally. He strongly criticized the irresponsible attitude of compilers who prioritized preserving people over the quality of the works (see Zhangzi's Poetic Fragments: Letter to the Eighth Brother Yi).
Regarding early Ming literature, he disapproved of figures like Song Lian, Liu Ji, and Gao Qi, who, though favored by the imperial court, were merely "scribes and sycophants" (though he did not entirely deny their literary talent). Instead, he recognized the "pioneers of the great chariot and wagon" like the "Ten Scholars of Fujian" and Nie Dajan, who had endured hardships, as having played a crucial role in creating a new literary style (i.e., literature with genuine individuality) (see The Stone Coffin: Biography of Literary Figures, Part 1). He was also critical of Wang Shizhen, who was "renowned and held high office" but was unfavorably evaluated in all official historical works. In the Biography of Wang Shizhen, he wrote: "I read The Four Classics Draft and The Collection of Baiyun Pavilion, and I see that Banzhou studied the Zuo Zhuan like the Zuo Zhuan, studied the Chao like the Chao, and studied Wang like Wang—his bookshelf is nothing but a bandit and rogue. His eyes and hands do not originate from himself, so he is not to be valued. At the time, when The Four Classics Draft first appeared, Tang Ruoshu (Xianzong) scrawled: 'Do not learn from Wang Banzhou, who deceives people with an empty belly.'" His evaluation of Wang Shizhen's historical insight was particularly low. However, he highly praised figures like Li Zhi and Xu Wei, believing that Li Zhi's words were like arrows and his writing like a knife, that people feared him, did not match him, and did not obey him. He also admired Xu Wei, who followed in Li Zhi's footsteps, saying that "in his heart, there was an indelible spirit of heroism and the sorrow of a hero lost without a way." Therefore, his poetry was "like anger and laughter, like water roaring through a gorge, like a widow's night cries or a traveler's shivering upon waking." His immortal contribution lay in clearing away the "decadence of the recent era," just like Yuan Zhonglang, who lived in the era of Wang and Li (see the same source).
These remarks were often insightful and systematic. This evaluation stemmed from his consistent standard of literary criticism: one must first "elevate one's aspirations" and "nourish one's spirit" before one can speak of art.