Character World History (Volume 1 and 2)

Author: Zhang Zhenyu
Publisher:
Publish Date: 2004-10-01
Features: The Odyssey narrates the experiences of Odysseus, the Greek "wise man" who devised the Trojan Horse strategy, during his journey home after the fall of Troy. Homer describes in the poem that Odysseus is the military leader of Ithaca, a island in the southwest of the Greek Peninsula, bold, clever, cunning, with a magnificent palace and vast estates, as well as numerous servants and livestock. More than nine years after the end of the Trojan War, he had not returned to his homeland. Over a hundred suitors gathered in his house, asking for the hand of his son Penelope in marriage and squandering his wealth. At this time, Odysseus was detained on the island of Calypso by the nymph for seven years. The gods of Olympus, pitying him, demanded that the nymph release him. He sailed on a raft at sea and was tossed by the storm raised by Poseidon, swept into the sea, and drifted to the island of Scheria. The island's military leader, Alcinous, hosted a banquet for him, and during the banquet, the blind singer Demodocus moved Odysseus with his singing. At Alcinous's request, he recounted his experiences at sea. Subsequently, Alcinous sent ships to take him back to Ithaca. After meeting his son, he cleverly killed the suitors and reunited with Penelope. Through Odysseus's absurd and incredible experiences, Homer reflects the struggle between ancient humans and nature, after it has been processed with fantasy, and praises the great power of human wisdom. The sea in the epic represents the force of nature. Odysseus embodies human wisdom, but he is also a typical idealized slave owner in the early stages of slavery. He is a clever leader, beloved by slaves, a brave warrior, and an expert in production. Relying on his ingenuity and indomitable spirit, he overcame unimaginable difficulties and finally became a victor. Homer's two epics are centered on heroic figures, grand in scale, sublime in style, simple in language, leisurely in narration, full of drama, and rich in the spirit of life. They contain many myths and legends, becoming an important source of later mythological themes. After completing The Odyssey, Homer embarked on a journey home, sharing the same feelings as Odysseus. To experience the waves of the Aegean Sea, Homer, despite his frail health, insisted on sailing back. However, Homer left this world forever without returning to his homeland. Homer is gone, but he left humanity two immortal great works. These two works are known as the "Homeric Epics." They are not only literary works but also symbols of the Greek nation and authoritative records of early Greek history. The "Homeric Epics" combine myth and history and have been revered by Westerners as treasures of classical art. Historians have also called the several hundred years from the 12th to the 9th century BC the "Homeric Age" in Greek history. Compared to the Mycenaean Civilization era, the economic development level during the Homeric Age saw significant progress. Agriculture and animal husbandry were the main production sectors. The use of iron tools indicates that agriculture was already highly developed at the time. The main forms of land ownership during this period were communal ownership and clan aristocratic ownership. The aristocrats, also known as the "heroes" in the Homeric Epics, were not only the political, economic, and military rulers of society but also the rulers of culture. There was no state during the Homeric Age; tribal governance was based on military democracy, with three main institutions: military leaders, councils, and assemblies. The assembly was composed of all adult males and made decisions on major issues. In principle, it held the highest power. However, the aristocrats always sought to suppress the opinions of ordinary clan members and even held the assembly for long periods. In the later stages of the Homeric Age, tribal administrative institutions began to transition toward state governing bodies. The history of Greece from the 8th to the 6th century BC was filled with struggles between the common people and the aristocrats. During this struggle, the clan system underwent transformation and reform, ultimately being replaced by a state system, establishing slave-owning city-states. Athens was one such slave-owning city-state.
2. Solon—the Reformer of Athens
Regarding Solon, it is more appropriate to describe him as a reformer rather than a politician. He abolished all outdated systems at the time and, with his proactive spirit, led the Greeks into an unprecedented new era.
Brief Introduction: Solon (c. 638–c. 559 BC) was an ancient Athenian statesman and poet. In his youth, he went into business and met many famous scholars from Greece and the world. In 594 BC, he was elected the chief magistrate of Athens and implemented political reforms, promoting social and economic development. After completing his term as magistrate, he traveled abroad. In his later years, he wrote at home. Solon came from a declining aristocratic family. In his youth, due to poverty, he went into business, accumulating extensive knowledge and rich life experience. The changes in his life exposed him to social inequalities and allowed him to understand the voices of the common people. There was once an incident when Solon saw a beggar asking for help on the roadside. Not only did a wealthy person refuse to assist him, but he also spat in his face. This deeply affected Solon. From then on, Solon used his wealth to help the poor whenever possible, earning him a great reputation among the people. His popularity among the Athenian people grew. In 594 BC, Solon was elected magistrate of Athens, gaining the highest power in the city. Before being elected magistrate, Athens was engaged in a struggle with Megara over the island of Salamis. This island was an important port for Athenian maritime trade. However, Athens suffered repeated defeats in this battle. As a result, the war-wary aristocratic council declared that anyone who proposed recapturing Salamis would be executed. Solon was deeply dissatisfied with this decision. To recapture the island, Solon devised a plan. He wore a wreath and recited his poem Salamis to the crowd in the Athens Square. At first, people thought he was crazy, but soon they were moved by his patriotic verses. The people strongly demanded the recapture of Salamis. In the end, the people won, and Solon was appointed commander of the war. Around 600 BC, Athens successfully recaptured Salamis.
After becoming magistrate, Solon often visited the common people, engaging in conversations with them and learning about their lives. He visited potters, carpenters, blacksmiths, shipbuilders, and others in Athens. This gave Solon a clearer understanding of the conflicts between the common people and the aristocrats in Athens. He realized that to avoid potential crises, it was necessary to reform the existing political system. Therefore, Solon began to use his power to outline a grand reform plan. The first measure of Solon's reforms was the Seisachtheia, which abolished all debts related to personal and freed debt slaves, prohibiting the use of human beings as debt collateral. To ensure the smooth implementation of the policy, Solon also waived a large debt owed to his father. At the same time, Solon set a maximum limit on the land that individuals could own, restricting the aristocrats from continuing to seize small farmers' land. After this decree was announced, Solon faced opposition from both the poor and the wealthy. The wealthy were angered because he deprived them of their collateral; the poor were even more incensed because he did not redistribute land according to their wishes or create equality in lifestyle. However, soon they began to see the benefits of his measures. Those who benefited held a public sacrifice and designated Solon to revise the constitution and establish new laws, entrusting him with unrestricted power. Thus, Solon became even more daring in his reforms. To ensure that all government positions remained in the hands of the wealthy while also allowing ordinary citizens to participate in some previously irrelevant government departments, Solon introduced a new system based on the property of citizens. Solon conducted an investigation and classified citizens' property. Those with an annual income of 500 measures were classified as the pentacosiomedimni, the second class consisted of those with an annual income of 300 measures or who could afford a horse, known as the hippeis, because they paid a knight's tax; those with an annual income of 200 measures were the third class, called zeugitai; the rest were all the fourth class, called thetes. According to Solon's regulations, the pentacosiomedimni and hippeis could hold the highest positions, including those of magistrates, while the zeugitai were considered ignorant and could only hold lower positions; the thetes could not hold any positions but could participate in the assembly as members or as jurors. Of the thetes's two rights, the latter initially seemed insignificant. However, it was later proven to be very important, as the majority of disputes were ultimately resolved by these jurors. Even cases judged by high-ranking officials could be appealed to the people's court if anyone requested it.