Cheng Hao, Cheng Yi, and Chinese Culture

Author: Cai Fanglu
Editor-in-Chief: Li Zonggui
Publisher:
Publishing Date: 1996-01-01
Features:
Introduction
This book is a treatise that combines macro and micro approaches to study the relationship between the great Northern Song Dynasty thinkers Cheng Hao and Cheng Yi and Chinese culture. The authors place the two Chengs in the broader context of Chinese cultural development, using their thought as a point, the Song-Ming Neo-Confucianism trend as a surface, and the entire Chinese culture as a line. By interconnecting these three aspects, the book conducts horizontal and vertical comparisons, presenting a comprehensive, systematic, and in-depth discussion of the composition, characteristics, and relationship between the Neo-Confucianism of the two Chengs and Chinese culture. The authors adopt modernization as a value standard, both critiquing the feudal and negative elements in the thought of the two Chengs while advocating the inheritance of the Chinese spirit reflected in their ideas. The book is a combination of historical analysis and theoretical argument, with rigorous logic and fluent writing, demonstrating strong intellectual depth and readability.
Excerpt:
Chapter 2 The Era of the Two Chengs
The two Chengs lived during the Northern Song Dynasty, a period of sustained feudal development and emerging crises in China. Their era was closely tied to the formation of their thought.
I. Social Transformation in the Tang-Song Transition
During the transition from the Tang to the Song, Chinese feudal society underwent profound historical changes, primarily marked by shifts in land ownership systems, which in turn led to changes in social institutions, production methods, political thought, and values. The transformation of land ownership was the defining feature of this period. The equal-field system, which distributed land based on population in the Northern Wei to mid-Tang period, with land sovereignty held by the feudal state and land allocated based on the ranks of nobles and officials, had already been severely disrupted by the time of Emperor Xuanzong of Tang. Feudal land nationalization gradually gave way to feudal land privatization. By the Song Dynasty, the Zhao Song regime implemented a policy of "not suppressing consolidation," allowing wealthy landowners to acquire vast tracts of land without limit. During this time, "land tenure systems were not established," though there were occasional decrees to limit land ownership, they were soon abandoned due to their impracticality. This led to unlimited landholdings by large landlords and rampant land consolidation. The Song court permitted free land transactions, enabling officials to become large or small landlords through arbitrary land purchases, further expanding their landholdings. This resulted in the phenomenon of "no fixed social hierarchy, no fixed landowners—buy if you have money, sell if you don’t." Free land transactions accelerated the process of land consolidation, further eroding the feudal state’s land allocation system and solidifying the establishment of private land ownership.
The changes in the feudal land system triggered a series of transformations in the feudal social structure. The abolition of the equal-field system altered the tax system, replacing the equal-field-based Rent-Tax-Service system of the Tang with the Two-Tax Law, which was adopted by the Northern Song regime and became the foundation of the Song Dynasty’s land tax system. In the military service system, the collapse of the equal-field system led to the replacement of the garrison system, which relied on conscription, with a system of recruiting soldiers from among the floating population. Under the equal-field system, the garrison system adopted a conscription model, requiring individuals who received land from the feudal state to serve in the garrison, a practice known as "integrating soldiers with agriculture." By the Song Dynasty, the system had evolved to widely recruit as imperial troops, transforming "integrating soldiers with agriculture" into a separation of soldiers and farming. In terms of political structure, new changes also emerged. The imperial examination system, which originated in the Sui and Tang dynasties, was introduced to replace the nine-rank system, which favored aristocratic privileges. Through the development and refinement by Song Dynasty rulers, it became the primary system for selecting officials. The perfection and establishment of the imperial examination system led to a political system governed by literati in the Song Dynasty, reflecting a stark contrast to the military dominance and aristocratic control of previous dynasties. The era of military dominance and aristocratic rule was eliminated. After the peasant uprisings of the late Tang Dynasty, the hereditary aristocracy no longer existed.
II. Strengthening Centralized Power in the Song and Political Crises
The establishment of the Song Dynasty came after the great turmoil of the late Tang and Five Dynasties period. To summarize historical lessons and achieve long-term stability, the highest rulers implemented measures to strengthen centralized power, thereby consolidating the feudal dynasty. This brought social stability and fostered economic and cultural development, but it also led to problems, creating a situation of "accumulated poverty" and "accumulated weakness," which in turn gave rise to political crises.
Postscript:
Postscript
In the spring of 1991, my senior colleague, Professor Li Zonggui, invited me to participate in the writing of the "Great Thinkers and Chinese Culture" series commissioned by Guizhou People’s Publishing House, to contribute the book "Cheng Hao and Cheng Yi and Chinese Culture." Given my long-standing research on Song-Ming Neo-Confucianism and my recent engagement with cultural discussions, Professor Zonggui believed I was well-suited to undertake this task. I also saw it as an opportunity to refine and enhance my own scholarship, so I readily accepted the invitation. I have long been aware that studying the two Chengs is a popular field, and continued in-depth research would be challenging. After reviewing extensive domestic and international research on the two Chengs, I confirmed this view. Around the same time, I received a letter of encouragement from the series editor, Xi Xiaoqing of Guizhou People’s Publishing House, who said, "Neo-Confucianism in the Song Dynasty is a critical aspect of Confucian studies, with many strong scholars—breaking new ground is not easy." Moreover, linking the thought of the two Chengs to Chinese culture presented additional challenges. He demanded that I ensure the quality of the book and strive for innovation. I appreciated the editor’s thoughtful approach, and I understood that the success of this book hinges on whether I can maintain quality and achieve innovation. Given that more than ten books and hundreds of papers on the two Chengs have already been published, both domestically and internationally, it is indeed difficult to offer fresh insights. However, if you are to write, you must innovate and elevate the existing scholarship to a new level—otherwise, there is no need to begin. With this conviction, I embarked on the writing of this book. After countless sleepless nights of reflection and hard work, I have finally completed it. Whether it meets expectations remains to be seen by the readers.
The writing of this book benefited from the intellectual contributions of past scholars and the guidance of my teachers who nurtured my knowledge. I extend my sincere gratitude to them here: Professor Zhang Dainian, Professor Shi Jun, Professor Yang Xianbang, Professor Qiao Changlu, Professor Zhang Liwen, Professor Fang Litian, Professor Ge Rongjin, Professor Jia Shunxian, Professor Li Suping, Professor Pan Fugen, Mr. Xu Yuqing, Researcher Xu Yuanhe, Professor Liu Xiangbin, Researcher Lu Lianzhang, and Professor Zhang Delin, Professor Li Rizhang, and Professor Zhang Yongjun from Taiwan, as well as Professor Ichikawa Yasushi, Professor Okada Takehiko, and Professor Araki Kimitsugu from Japan.
This book was completed within the framework of the "Great Thinkers and Chinese Culture" series, in accordance with the requirements of the publisher and the series editor’s "Instructions for Writing." From outlining the structure to revising the manuscript, I received guidance and support from Editor-in-Chief Li Zonggui. The leadership and editor Xi Xiaoqing of Guizhou People’s Publishing House also devoted significant effort to this project, for which I express my deep respect.
Mr. Cheng Dexiang, the twenty-ninth-generation descendant of Master Cheng Yan of the Cheng family and a senior engineer, provided me with portraits of the two Chengs and enthusiastically encouraged me in my writing. My sincere gratitude goes to him.
Studying the two Chengs within the broader context of Chinese culture is a novel and pioneering endeavor. The errors and omissions in this book are inevitable, and I welcome the readers’ criticism and corrections.
Cai Fanglu
December 1993
Philosophy Institute, Sichuan Academy of Social Sciences