Basic Knowledge of Chinese Taoism

Author: Religious Culture Publishing House
Publisher:
Publishing Date: 2005-07-01
Features: This is a popular book on Taoism, briefly introducing knowledge about the historical development of Taoism, its classical doctrines, cultivation techniques, rituals, famous mountains and temples, as well as the relationship between Taoism and Chinese culture and arts. It enables readers to understand the culture of Taoism and promote the traditional culture of our country. Chinese civilization is long-standing and brilliant. In the long history of traditional Chinese thought and culture, there have always been two main lines. Confucianism, centered around the thought of Confucius and Mencius, is the orthodox culture of China. Meanwhile, Taoism, represented by the thought of Laozi and Zhuangzi, as well as the Taoist religion that emerged from it, is another main branch of Chinese culture. The complementarity of Confucianism and Taoism, along with the introduction of Buddhism from the outside, forms the basic framework of the three religions dominating Chinese traditional culture for nearly two thousand years. As one of the three religions, Taoism and Taoist religion have had a significant impact on ancient Chinese social and political systems, academic thought, religious beliefs, literature and arts, medicine and technology. As Lu Xun said, "The roots of China are entirely in Taoism." Most modern Chinese scholars believe that Taoism and Taoist religion are two concepts that are both connected and distinct. Traditionally, Taoism is sometimes referred to as Taoist religion, or vice versa, and Taoist religion is sometimes called Taoism or Huang-Lao. But strictly speaking, they are not entirely the same. The term "Taoism" first appeared in Sima Tan's Essentials of the Six Schools of Thought during the Western Han Dynasty, referring to the school among the Hundred Schools of Thought in pre-Qin times represented by the thought of Laozi and Zhuangzi, or the Huang-Lao studies that flourished during the Warring States and Qin-Han periods. They both take "the Dao" as the highest category in terms of theoretical thought, advocating reverence for the Dao and virtue, emulating nature, and governing and cultivating oneself through the principles of quietude and non-action. Therefore, they are called Taoists. As for "Taoist religion," it was formed on the basis of Huang-Lao Taoist theory in the Han Dynasty, absorbing the techniques of ancient immortal cultivators and folk witchcraft and belief in ghosts and spirits, thus becoming a religious entity. By name, "Taoist religion" means the enlightenment or teaching of the Dao, or simply the belief in the Dao, attempting to achieve "immortality and enlightenment" through spiritual and physical cultivation. As a religious entity, Taoist religion not only has its unique classical doctrines, beliefs in immortals, and ritual activities but also has its sect lineages, religious organizations, disciplinary rules, and places of religious activity. Such religious groups are clearly different from the early Taoist schools. Although Taoism and Taoist religion cannot be completely equated, they are closely related. The cosmology of early Taoist philosophy, such as the idea that the Dao gives birth to all things, the transformation of qi in the universe, and the unity of heaven and humanity; the dialectical thinking about the opposition and unity of yin and yang; the principles of governing and cultivating oneself through natural non-action and pure emptiness; as well as the mysticism of quiet contemplation and the integration of the Dao, all had a profound influence on the doctrines and cultivation techniques of Taoist religion. In summary, the philosophical concepts of Taoism, the health-preserving techniques of immortal cultivators, and the folk witchcraft and belief in ghosts and spirits of ancient times are the three main sources from which Taoist religion absorbs and constructs its religious theology, cultivation techniques, and religious rituals. Additionally, Confucianism's idea of establishing religion through divine governance and the ethics of loyalty and filial piety, Buddhism's concepts of rebirth and the illumination of the mind, Mohism's ideas of equality and perseverance, as well as the divination and numerology of Yin-Yang scholars, have all been absorbed and integrated by Taoist religion. The formation of Taoist religion as a religious entity began in the Eastern Han Dynasty. The development of Taoism from the pre-Qin period to the Han Dynasty took several hundred years and was the prehistory of Taoist religion. After its formation, Taoist religion continued to evolve along with the changes in ancient Chinese social systems and cultural trends. The history of Taoist religion over the past two thousand years can be roughly summarized as follows: The Eastern Han to the Wei-Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties was a period of the formation and establishment of Taoism. Taoist religion took shape in the later Eastern Han Dynasty, giving rise to folk original religious groups such as the Taiping Dao and the Five-Pound-Meal Dao, and groups of immortal cultivators also emerged. After hundreds of years of transformation and development during the Wei-Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties, the classical doctrines, cultivation techniques, disciplinary rules, and rituals of Taoist religion gradually became complete, new sects emerged and flourished, and they were recognized by the ruling class, evolving from early folk religion into a mature orthodox religion. The Sui, Tang, and Northern Song dynasties saw the peak of Taoist religion due to the reverence of the ruling class. Emperors like Xuanzong of Tang, Zhensong of Song, and Huizong were all famous for their belief in Taoism. They fabricated stories of divine spirits manifesting and divine books descending, favored (Daoist priests), ordered the compilation of the Dao Zang (Daoist Canon), and constructed temples and monasteries, expanding the social influence of Taoism. The philosophy, health-preserving techniques, talismanic methods, and ritual rules of Taoism became more refined. However, Taoism was also used as a tool to deify feudal autocratic rule, and some upper-class (Daoist priests) became corrupt and luxurious, leading to criticism from the enlightened. Since the late Tang and Northern Song dynasties, some new changes have emerged within Taoism, primarily the integration of Confucian, Buddhist, and Taoist thought, with the rise of the Jindan Dao sect, which focuses on internal alchemy. During the Southern Song and Jin-Yuan periods, Taoism underwent transformation. In Northern China, new sects such as the Quanzhen Dao, the Taidao, and the Zhen Da Dao emerged, while in Southern China, new sects like the Nan Zong of Jindan, the Tianxin, the Shenshou, the Qingwei, and the Jingming also appeared. Early sects like the Tianshi Dao, the Shangqing, and the Lingbao also underwent reforms in their doctrines and practices. Promoting the unity of the three religions and emphasizing internal alchemy were the main characteristics of the new Taoism of this period. The Ming and Qing dynasties spanned five hundred years, marking the late stage of traditional Chinese society, which became increasingly corrupt and decadent. The three religions of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism, which had long been pillars of traditional Chinese culture, also stagnated and rigidified. The rise of secret folk religious groups and the introduction of Western Christian culture accelerated the decline of traditional Chinese culture. Modern Chinese Taoism inherited the legacy of the Ming and Qing dynasties and failed to revitalize itself. Today, Taoism has lost its position as the mainstream of Chinese culture. However, like Confucianism and Buddhism, Taoism still has a significant impact on the spiritual life and customs of the Chinese people. Looking back at the history of Taoism and Taoist religion, as well as their doctrines, cultivation techniques, and rituals, they are deeply rooted in Chinese culture. The philosophical doctrines of Taoism integrate the laws of nature and the laws of the sacred, a monistic cosmology and polytheistic belief, and an otherworldly spirit with worldly merits, aligning with the traditional Chinese philosophy of "unity of heaven and humanity" and the combination of inner sagehood and outer kingship. The cultivation techniques of Taoism advocate the cultivation of both life and nature, emphasizing both physical health and spiritual refinement, blending witchcraft and Daoist methods with scientific technology, embodying the characteristics of "mysticism" in Chinese culture. The organizational form of Taoism is both top-down and folk-based, with illegal folk religious groups and legal official sects developing alternately; its temple management systems range from traditional patriarchal and monastic systems to modern corporate legal systems. These characteristics are distinctly different from Western religions. Over the past two thousand years, Taoism and Taoist religion have had a comprehensive and profound impact on Chinese culture. The beliefs in immortals and the Taoist emphasis on nature and non-action have deeply influenced the romanticism and naturalism in Chinese literature and art. The folk worship of deities in Taoism is closely intertwined with the daily life and cultural entertainment of ordinary Chinese people. The alchemical and medicinal techniques of Taoism have made significant contributions to the development of ancient Chinese chemistry and pharmacology. Its techniques of breath control, sexual practices, mental concentration, and internal alchemy are closely related to traditional Chinese medicine and human science. These excellent cultural heritages continue to attract countless Chinese people today. To enable more readers to understand the culture of Taoism and promote the traditional culture of our country, we have accepted the suggestion of Religious Culture Publishing House to compile this book. It briefly introduces the historical development, classical doctrines, cultivation techniques, rituals, famous mountains and temples, and the relationship between Taoism and Chinese culture and arts from six aspects.