Practicing the middle and learning from the West: the practical application of governance and the transformation of modern society

Author: Su Zhongli / Su Hui
Publisher:
Publish Date: 2004-10-01
Features: This book elaborates in detail the tortuous development of the pragmatic thought of governing the state for practical use, its core content such as learning from history and valuing practical knowledge, the different forms it took during the Ming and Qing dynasties and after the Opium War, as well as its significant role in the transformation of modern Chinese society. The latter part of the book dedicates a substantial amount of space to discussing how to promote the pragmatic thought of governing the state for practical use in Chinese history. Excerpt: Pragmatic Thought: A Winding Development
The term "governing the state for practical use" first appears in the Zhuangzi, specifically in the Qiwulun chapter of the Zhuangzi: "The Spring and Autumn Annals govern the state, the aspirations of the ancient kings, and the deliberations of the sages are without argument." According to the annotations, "governing the state for practical use" means "classics," "rules," or "regulations." The Book of the Later Han·Biography of the Western Qiang mentions: "Some people calculate the immediate needs of daily life, yet foolishly plan for distant strategies of governing the state." Here, "governing the state for practical use" carries the meaning of "governing the state for practical use," indicating that those who govern the state must not only consider immediate "emergency measures" but also have long-term strategies. In his preface to Zhang Mu's Record of Mongol Pastoral Life, written in 1859 for a "" (a dedicated pragmatist), Qi Junzao said: "When writing ancient literature, one values truth-seeking; when discussing current affairs, one values governing the state for practical use. The two cannot be combined, yet Zhang Shizhou's Record of Mongol Pastoral Life achieves both." "Readers gain the resources of truth-seeking, and those in governance reap the benefits of governing the state for practical use." Here, "governing the state for practical use" is mentioned alongside "governing the state for practical use," both referring to books on current affairs, specifically in the political context. Liang Qichao frequently discussed "governing the state for practical use" and "governing the state for practical use" in his writings. He said: "The school of 'governing the state for practical use' derives its fundamental concept from Confucius and Mencius, and it has been advocated by successive dynasties. The Enlightenment and late Qing schools further expanded its scope." He summarized the evolution of the concept of governing the state for practical use and explained how its meaning expanded over time. Indeed, this is the case. During the Spring and Autumn period, Confucius was one of the earliest scholars to advocate for governing the state for practical use. During his lifetime, he incorporated pragmatic thought into Confucian classics and traveled among the states, hoping to persuade the nobles and officials to govern and save the world according to the model of the Rites of Zhou. In the mid-Warring States period, Mencius expressed his intention to inherit the pragmatic legacy of Confucius, the Duke of Zhou, and the Yellow Emperor, the three sages. The Mencius·Discourses on Teng Wen records: "In the past, Yu subdued the floods and brought peace to the world. The Duke of Zhou unified the barbarians and drove off fierce beasts, and the people lived in peace. Confucius completed the Spring and Autumn Annals, and traitors and villains trembled. I too wish to correct the people's minds, suppress heretical doctrines, oppose perverse actions, and discard frivolous words to follow the example of the three sages." It should be noted that the "way of the inner sage and the outer king," though first proposed in the Zhuangzi, is more suitable for expressing Confucian pragmatic thought. At the turn of the Qin and Han dynasties, the Great Learning in the Book of Rites, written by Confucian scholars, proposed three principles and eight items, promoting the "way of the inner sage and the outer king." The three principles are: "illuminating the bright virtue," "nearing the people," and "stopping at perfection." "Illuminating the bright virtue" refers to the inner sage's cultivation, i.e., bringing out the inherent bright virtue within oneself; "nearing the people" is the outer king's mission, spreading the bright virtue to others to achieve the goal of renewing the people; "stopping at perfection" means reaching perfection, which is the ultimate ideal of realization and completion. The eight items are: "investigating things," "gaining knowledge," "sincerity of intention," "rectifying the mind," "self-cultivation," "governing the family," "governing the state," and "pacifying the world." The first five belong to the inner sage, educating people in the cultivation of the inner sage; the last three belong to the outer king, spreading oneself to others to achieve the mission of the outer king. The "inner sage and the outer king" and the "three" (three principles and eight items) can be said to be the ideal that generations of Confucians dreamed of, with the ultimate goal being the outer king's pragmatic governance. The formation of ancient pragmatic thought was closely tied to education at the time. Starting from the Western Zhou, official schools established the tradition of "official and teacher being one" and "politics and education being one." In the middle and late Spring and Autumn period, private schools also followed the principle of "those who excel in learning should serve in government," cultivating talents for political participation. Even commoners who could not participate in politics were expected to study the management of affairs and uphold the ideals of self-cultivation, family harmony, state governance, and world peace, taking the world upon themselves. Thus, the phenomenon of "not caring about the affairs outside the window and focusing solely on reading the classics" had not yet emerged. During the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods, not only Confucianism but also all the Hundred Schools of Thought advocated for pragmatic governance. Mozi, the founder of the Mohist school, linked the concepts of "valuing the worthy" and "universal love" to politics, chaos, and wealth in his Mozi, saying: "Valuing the worthy is the 'benefit of the people and the foundation of governance'; universal love is the 'path to governing the world,' and 'if the world universally loves one another, it will be peaceful; if they mutually hate one another, it will be chaotic.' To desire the world's wealth while hating its poverty, to desire the world's peace while hating its chaos, one should practice universal love and mutual benefit." On the surface, the Daoists seemed reluctant to engage in politics, but this was not the case. In the Zhuangzi·Worldly Schools, they not only advocated for the "way of the inner sage and the outer king" but also sought to "travel the world, teaching above and below," "promoting peace by prohibiting warfare" and "reducing desires and desires for the inner sage," all to achieve the goals of "saving the people" and "saving the world." Although pragmatic thought emerged in ancient times and has continued unbroken,...