Sānguózhì (The Five Volumes Complete Edition)

Author: (Jin) Chen Shou compiled, (Song) Pei Songzhi annotated
Publisher:
Publishing Date: 2005-02-01
Features: This book was written by Chen Shou in the early years of the Jin and Southern and Northern Dynasties. It records a complete history of more than 60 years from the Wei Emperor to the Jin Emperor, covering the period of the Three Kingdoms in Chinese history. This period was a time of three-way confrontation in Chinese history and is considered a masterpiece of ancient Chinese history. The book is rich in content, with ample and detailed historical data, making it an important reference book for studying the history and culture of the Three Kingdoms. ... The Three Kingdoms was a distinctive period in the historical development of China's feudal society, characterized by the confrontation of the three states of Wei, Shu, and Wu. The history of the Three Kingdoms lasted for approximately ninety years, from the warlord chaos starting in 190 AD to the unification of the south by the Jin in 280 AD. However, some historians start the count from 220 AD, the year when Cao Pi declared himself emperor. A careful examination of the history of the Three Kingdoms still favors starting from 190 AD, as there was indeed a period of formation before the emergence of the three states. The Three Kingdoms were a continuation of the Eastern Han Dynasty. In the late Eastern Han Dynasty, the land ownership system of powerful landlords and wealthy landowners rapidly developed, land consolidation became extremely fierce, and the mutual interference and rivalry between the eunuch and the foreign relative factions further exacerbated political darkness and court corruption. Added to this were the continuous military campaigns against the Qiang ethnic group and the relentless attacks of natural disasters, which sharpened class contradictions and eventually led to the Yellow Turban Rebellion in 184 AD. Under the leadership of Zhang Jiao, Zhang Bao, and Zhang Liang, the rebel forces quickly expanded, their scale and momentum posing a serious threat to the rule of the Eastern Han Dynasty. Emperor Ling was alarmed and sent troops to suppress the Yellow Turbans, first appointing He Jin, the brother of Empress He, as the general-in-chief to station troops near Luoyang, sending Lu Zhi to Hebei to fight Zhang Jiao, and dispatching Huangfu Song and Zhu Yi to Yingchuan (now Yucheng County, Henan) to fight another Yellow Turban force led by Bo Cai. In the battle of Yingchuan, Bo Cai's Yellow Turban forces fought bravely and tenaciously, but Zhu Yi and Huangfu Song suffered repeated defeats. Later, Huangfu Song used fire attacks, taking advantage of strong winds to disorganize the peasant army, resulting in the deaths of tens of thousands of rebels. Bo Cai was eventually killed in battle. In the battle of Hebei, Zhang Jiao's Yellow Turban forces fought against Lu Zhi's army for a considerable period, with neither side gaining the upper hand. Emperor Ling, suspecting Lu Zhi's incompetence and fearing that Zhang Jiao's peasant rebellion would attack Luoyang,、，. Huangfu Song used cunning tactics to deceive the peasant army and launched a sudden attack in the dead of night. Due to the rebels' lack of combat experience and insufficient preparation, the uprising suffered the loss of over 80,000 people in a single night. The peasant army was forced to retreat to Xiayu (now west of Jin County, Hebei) and continued to fight against Huangfu Song. Due to the vast disparity in their conditions, the peasant army suffered heavy losses, with over a hundred thousand rebels killed in battle. Zhang Jiao, Zhang Liang, and Zhang Bao、. After nine months of fierce fighting, although the Yellow Turban forces were suppressed by the imperial army and their main leaders were killed, they did not suffer a complete defeat. Many remnants of the Yellow Turban forces continued to fight in different regions until 192 AD, when there were still over 300,000 Yellow Turbans in Qingzhou (north of Lixi, Zibo City, Shandong). In 205 AD, the allied force of the Yellow Turbans, the Heishan Army, still had over 100,000 soldiers. A total of over 400,000 peasant rebels continued to fight for a long time. The Yellow Turban Rebellion failed, but it largely destroyed the ruling order of the Eastern Han Dynasty, plunging it into a state of exhaustion and accelerating its collapse. In 189 AD, Emperor Ling died, and the young emperor ascended the throne. At that time, due to the immense power of the eunuchs, General He Jin, to control the eunuchs' influence, invited Dong Zhuo, who was entrenched in Hedong (southwest of Shanxi), to the capital to strengthen the power of the foreign relatives. However, the plot was exposed, and He Jin was killed by the eunuchs. Yuan Shao retaliated with his army, killing over 2,000 eunuchs. Soon after, Dong Zhuo entered Luoyang, deposed the young emperor, and installed Emperor Xian. Dong Zhuo was even more brutal to the people and completely disregarded the Han court officials, showing signs of replacing the Han Dynasty. In response, many political ambitious individuals took the name of suppressing Dong Zhuo to seize the opportunity to expand their own power. In 196 AD, Cao Cao escorted Emperor Xian to Xuchang, marking the beginning of the era of "holding the emperor to issue orders to the feudal lords," using the name of the court to meet his own needs. From then on, the Han Dynasty existed in name only, and the era of the Three Kingdoms officially began. Cao Cao was eager to unify the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River as soon as possible, but Yuan Shao, who dominated the northern regions of Ji Province (central and southern Hebei) and You Province (northern Hebei, Beijing, and most of Liaoning), posed a significant obstacle to his plans. In 200 AD, the decisive battle of Guandu (Zhongmou, Henan) was fought between the forces of Cao and Yuan. In the end, Cao Cao, outnumbered, defeated Yuan Shao, removing a major obstacle. Over the next two or three years, Cao Cao completely eliminated the remnants of Yuan Shao's forces and achieved unification of the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River. Around the time of the battle of Guandu, Sun Quan, in the south, inherited the foundations laid by his father and elder brother, dominating the lower reaches of the Yangtze River. Liu Bei, who claimed descent from the Han imperial family, also did not stand idly by during this period, actively planning and preparing for the right moment to act. He temporarily sought refuge under Liu Biao, the governor of Jing Province (most of Hubei and Hunan, and southwestern Henan). In 208 AD, soon after the battle of Guandu, Cao Cao, with ambitious plans, led his army south to attack Jing Province and pursue Liu Bei. He also threatened Sun Quan, beginning to realize his plan to unify the entire country. Liu Bei and Sun Quan, following the advice of Lu Su and Zhuge Liang, decided to fight together and resist Cao Cao. Zhou Yu, the main general of the Wu army, set fire to dozens of Cao Cao's warships on the southern bank of the Yangtze River at Red Cliffs (Puyi County, Hubei), and taking advantage of the chaos, the allied forces of Sun and Liu launched fierce attacks, defeating Cao Cao's army of over 200,000 with fewer than 50,000 of their own, achieving a comprehensive victory. As a result, Cao Cao was forced to retreat to the north. After the battle, Sun Quan's position in the south was consolidated, and Liu Bei seized parts of Jing Province and further west, gaining Yi Province (Sichuan and other areas). By this point, the division of the world into three parts was largely established. In 220 AD, Cao Cao died, and his son Cao Pi succeeded him, deposing Emperor Xian and declaring himself emperor, establishing the state of Wei with Luoyang as its capital. In 221 AD, Liu Bei also declared himself emperor, establishing the state of Shu with Chengdu as its capital, which later became known in history as Shu-Han. In 222 AD, Sun Quan officially declared himself emperor, establishing the state of Wu with Jianye (now Nanjing, Jiangsu) as its capital, marking the official formation of the three states. After the establishment of the three states, large-scale wars decreased relatively, and each state focused on political, economic, and other reforms within its own region, suppressing scattered separatist forces to consolidate its rule. In Wei, Cao Cao, before the battle of Guandu, had already begun economic reforms, focusing on agriculture and establishing (state-controlled farmland) in Xuchang, achieving significant results. This provided abundant material conditions for later dominance and defeating opponents. After Cao Pi became emperor, he expanded the scale of, constructed water conservancy projects, and developed rice fields, leading to faster recovery and development of the social economy in the Yellow River region. Politically, Cao Cao advocated "promoting talent regardless of origin," elevating many capable individuals. Cao Pi also absorbed some morally and intellectually outstanding figures, and during the era of talent in the Three Kingdoms, the Cao family had the most. In Wu, ruled by Sun Quan, large-scale was also carried out in the Jianghuai region, extensive water conservancy projects were constructed in present-day Zhejiang Province, and advanced production technologies were introduced from the north, greatly promoting the development of the lower Yangtze River region. Moreover, Sun Quan actively engaged in diplomatic activities to promote the prosperity and development of Wu. In Shu, established by Liu Bei, Zhuge Liang was appointed as the prime minister, and production was actively developed in Sichuan. Capable personnel were sent to manage Dujiangyan, and new water conservancy projects were constructed. To stabilize the rear, he also worked to improve relations with ethnic minority areas in present-day Guizhou and Yunnan, strengthening political, economic, and cultural ties between the Han and the southwestern minorities. The three states of Wei, Shu, and Wu developed unevenly in politics, economy, military, culture, and diplomacy. Overall, Wei was stronger than Shu and Wu, so for a considerable period, Wu and Shu allied to resist Cao Cao. However, later, due to conflicts over Jing Province, Wu and Shu developed tensions. In 220 AD, Wu seized Jing Province by surprise, taking advantage of Guan Yu's campaign against Wei, and killed Guan Yu. In response, Liu Bei personally led an army to attack Wu in 222 AD. The armies of Wu and Shu fought a large-scale battle in Yiling (north of Yidu, Hubei). The battle of Yiling ended with Wu's victory and Shu's defeat. In 223 AD, Liu Bei, exhausted from overwork, fell ill and died in Yong'an (now Fengjie, Sichuan). Zhuge Liang, following the late emperor's orders, supported Liu Bei's son Liu Shan and continued to follow the principle of allying with Wu to resist Wei, determined to seize the Central Plains and revitalize the Han Dynasty. However, his multiple northern campaigns were unsuccessful. In 234 AD, Shu launched another northern campaign, and Wei sent the general Sima Yi to respond. The two armies fought a battle of wisdom and courage at Wuzhangyuan (southwest of Mei County, Shaanxi). As the battle reached a stalemate, victory seemed uncertain, but Zhuge Liang, the strategist of Shu, died in battle. Shu's army was unable to continue and was forced to retreat. From then on, Shu's power gradually declined, while the Wei state gradually fell under the control of the Sima family. After Sima Yi's death, his sons Sima Shi and Sima Zhao,. In 263 AD, Shu was finally conquered by Wei. In 265 AD, Sima Yan deposed the Wei emperor and established the Jin Dynasty, later known as Emperor Wu of Jin, with Luoyang as its capital. In 280 AD, Sima Yan gathered a large army to attack Jianye (now Nanjing, Jiangsu), and conquered Wu, ending the decades-long period of division and domination since the Eastern Han Dynasty. The establishment of Western Jin replaced the historical trinity of the Three Kingdoms and brought about a short-term unification of China. The Three Kingdoms period was an era of outstanding talent, where, through long-term political and military struggles, not only did many political and military leaders emerge but also numerous philosophers, writers, and natural scientists. As a result, the Three Kingdoms made breakthroughs in politics, military, economy, and culture. Cao Cao can be considered an outstanding representative on the political stage of the Three Kingdoms. Before the formation of the Three Kingdoms, he already showed his exceptional political and military talents in the warlord chaos. He used various conditions to eliminate many warlord forces, reformed the shortcomings of the Eastern Han Dynasty that no longer suited his political needs, and involved lower and middle-class landlords in the planning of the state, networking talents, suppressing the powerful, developing water conservancy, promoting production, and adhering to unification, laying a solid foundation for the establishment of Wei. Militarily, Zhuge Liang can be considered a typical figure of the Three Kingdoms era. Before and after the formation of Shu, he was a decisive military strategist who could determine the outcome of battles. In the famous strategy of Longzhong, the alliance with Sun Quan to resist Cao Cao, his assistance in helping Liu Bei dominate the region, the establishment of Han-Shu, his governance of Shu under Liu Shan, the "seven captures of Meng Huo," and the "five expeditions to Qishan," he demonstrated extraordinary military talent. His military thought holds an important position in the history of Chinese military thought. Philosophically, Wei was the most developed, pioneering the trend of (Daoist metaphysics). The "Three Mysteries" (《》、《》and《》) were the classics of the metaphysicians of that time. Wang Bi (226–249 AD), styled Fusi, from Shanyang (now Jiaozuo, Henan), was the founder of metaphysics. In his works such as the "Commentary on the Laozi," "Commentary on the Zhouyi," and "Brief Examples of the Zhouyi," he vigorously advocated the theory of "valuing the void" (), considering the non-material "void" as the substance of the universe, a form of objective idealism. From a practical perspective, his advocacy of "non-action" () that allows things to take their natural course lowered the status of feudal moral norms to a secondary position, providing a theoretical basis for the greed of the feudal upper class and could be seen as a reflection of decadent consciousness at the time. Despite this, his works and theories had a broad and profound influence on the history of Chinese philosophy. In the field of literature and art, the Cao family father and son should be the first to be mentioned. Cao Cao (155–220 AD), styled Mengde, from Pei Guo Qiao (now Bo County, Anhui), was not only a statesman and military strategist but also an outstanding poet and prose writer. His representative works, such as "Stanza of Short Songs," "Stanza of Exiting Xia Gate," and "Order of Self-Preservation," hold a certain position in the history of Chinese poetry and prose and have had a significant impact. Lu Xun once praised Cao Cao as a master of reforming the literary style of his generation. Cao Pi's "Discourse on Literature" is the earliest existing monograph on literary criticism in China. Cao Zhi's five-character poems injected new content into the development of Chinese poetry and had a great influence. Influenced by the Cao family, the "Seven Scholars of Jian'an" also made significant contributions to the development of literature at the time. In addition, there were also talents in science and medicine, such as Zhang Zhongjing and Hua Tuo, who were famous medical masters of the time, as well as mechanical engineers like Ma Jun. They all held important positions in the history of Chinese science. In summary, the Three Kingdoms achieved brilliant accomplishments in politics, economy, military, culture, and other fields, which were passed down to later generations. The development of the Three Kingdoms of Wei, Shu, and Wu was uneven in terms of time. Sun Quan's Wu lasted the longest, from 222 AD when Sun Quan declared himself king of Wu to 280 AD when Sun Hao surrendered to Western Jin, a total of fifty-nine years. Next was Wei, from 220 AD when Cao Pi declared himself emperor to 265 AD when Sima Yan deposed the Wei emperor and established Western Jin, a total of forty-five years. Shu-Han had the shortest existence, from 221 AD when Liu Bei declared himself emperor to 263 AD when Liu Shan was defeated by Wei, a total of forty-three years. The complex process of the Three Kingdoms' history made it difficult for later historians to study it, and due to differences in the status, perspectives, and viewpoints of historians, there arose disputes over who was the "orthodox" ruler. Some favored Wei and suppressed Shu, considering Wei the orthodox; others favored Shu and suppressed Wei, considering Shu the orthodox. Indeed, there had been mutual plots to () each other between Wei and Shu, but due to various reasons, despite several wars, neither side succeeded in () the other. Wu was less prominent in these () efforts, and the disputes over orthodoxy did not involve it. In reality, the wars between the Three Kingdoms were all aimed at expanding their territories and seizing the leadership of the entire country; there was no need for disputes over orthodoxy. The history of the Three Kingdoms was intricate and complex, with outstanding figures emerging one after another and numerous events. "The Records of the Three Kingdoms" is a historical book that records the entire history of the Three Kingdoms. It covers a history of ninety years, from the first year of Emperor Xian of the Eastern Han (190 AD) when warlord chaos began, to the end. "The Records of the Three Kingdoms" followed the "Records of the Grand Historian" and the "Book of the Later Han," but was completed before the "Book of the Later Han." Sima Qian's "Records of the Grand Historian" was a continuous history, while Ban Gu's "Book of the Later Han" was a discontinuous history. "The Records of the Three Kingdoms" divided the Three Kingdoms into three books: the "Book of Wei" (thirty volumes), the "Book of Shu" (fifteen volumes), and the "Book of Wu" (twenty volumes), totaling sixty-five volumes, creating a unique style within the genre of discontinuous history. The entire book has a clear narrative structure, concise and lucid language, and often exhibits literary talent in describing people and events. The author of "The Records of the Three Kingdoms," Chen Shou, styled Chengzuo, was from Baxian Anhan (north of Nanchong, Sichuan), born in the eleventh year of the Jianxing era of Shu-Han (233 AD) and died in the seventh year of the Yuankang era of the Jin Huidei (297 AD). He served as the commandant of Guanlou in Shu and, after entering the Jin Dynasty, held positions such as the Court Historian and the Imperial Censor. Before the Three Kingdoms period, historical records already existed for Wei and Wu, such as the "Book of Wei" by Jin Wang Shen and the "Brief Account of Wei" by Wei Yu Han, and the "Book of Wu" by Wu Wei Zhao. Chen Shou compiled the "Book of Wei" (thirty volumes) and the "Book of Wu" (twenty volumes) based on historical records of the time. As a native of Shu and a disciple of the historian Qiao Zhou, he had long been focused on studying historical books and collecting and organizing historical facts of Shu, which later led to the completion of the "Book of Shu" (fifteen volumes). These sixty-five volumes of Three Kingdoms history were combined into a single book called "The Records of the Three Kingdoms." Chen Shou, as a Jin official, was commissioned to compile history, naturally considering Wei the orthodox, referring to its rulers as emperors and narrating them in "jì" (annals), while only listing the rulers of Shu and Wu as "zhuàn" (biographies), and inevitably using euphemistic language to conceal the faults and exaggerate the virtues of the Jin rulers. Compared to Sima Qian's satirical and revealing attitude toward rulers in the "Records of the Grand Historian," this was clearly inferior. This was determined by their different positions and circumstances, as well as the limitations of history and class. "The Records of the Three Kingdoms" was known for its concise writing style, but due to its brevity, it lacked detailed descriptions of historical facts and individuals, making it less vivid and lifelike compared to the "Records of the Grand Historian" and the "Book of the Later Han." Therefore, the Qing scholar Li Ciming remarked in his "Diary of Yue Manor": "Chengzuo was indeed a good historian, but he was determined to be concise, so there was more cutting than literary talent; the figures of the time were no less than those of the Qin and Han period, but Sima Qian's 'Records of the Grand Historian' was a hundred times more colorful, while Chengzuo's book was dull and plain, and Fan Wei Zong's 'Book of the Later Han' was better." It should be said that Li's comments from the perspective of comparative historical research were objective. Over a hundred and thirty years after Chen Shou's death, during the Southern Dynasties of the Liu Song period, Pei Songzhi annotated "The Records of the Three Kingdoms." Pei Songzhi, born in 372 AD and died in 451 AD, styled Shiji, was from Wenxi County of Hedong Command (now Wenxi, Shanxi), and served as the Vice Minister of the Secretariat during the Liu Song Dynasty, also a renowned historian. He annotated "The Records of the Three Kingdoms" at the command of Emperor Wen of Liu Song. He broke the traditional pattern of annotations, not explaining terms, institutions, or names, but focusing on correcting errors and supplementing historical materials. He cited over one hundred and forty works from the Han, Wei, and Liu Song dynasties, with the text exceeding three times that of the original book, and the quoted sources were complete from beginning to end. Even more valuable was that most of the original texts he cited had been lost, and due to Pei Songzhi's extensive references, they were preserved, allowing later generations to glimpse the original book. In the "Zizhi Tongjian" by Sima Guang of the Song Dynasty, the description of the battle of Red Cliffs was a comprehensive account that synthesized the relevant biographies from Chen Shou's "Records of the Three Kingdoms" and the historical materials cited in Pei Songzhi's annotations. Therefore, we can say that Chen Shou's "Records of the Three Kingdoms" is an important work for later generations to study the history of the Three Kingdoms, and Pei Songzhi's annotations to it are also important references for studying the history of the Three Kingdoms.