Sanguo Zhi (Complete 5 Volumes)

Author: Chen Shou
Publisher:
Publishing Date: July 1, 1982
Features: The Three Kingdoms period was a distinctive era in the historical development of China's feudal society, marked by the dominance of the three states—Wei, Shu, and Wu. The history of the Three Kingdoms spanned approximately ninety years, from the warlord chaos in 190 AD to the unification of the south by the Jin Dynasty in 280 AD. However, some historians consider the year 220 AD, when Cao Pi declared himself emperor, as the starting point. A closer examination of the Three Kingdoms period suggests that 190 AD is a more scientific beginning, as there was indeed a formative process before the emergence of the three states. The Three Kingdoms were a continuation of the Eastern Han Dynasty. During the late Eastern Han, the land ownership system of powerful landlords and warlords rapidly expanded, land consolidation intensified, and the mutual interference and strife between eunuchs and the imperial family further plunged politics into extreme darkness and court corruption. Added to this were the relentless military campaigns against the Qiang ethnic group and the constant attacks of natural disasters, which sharpened class contradictions and eventually led to the Yellow Turban Rebellion in 184 AD. Under the leadership of Zhang Jiao, Zhang Bao, and Zhang Liang, the rebel forces quickly grew, posing a severe threat to the rule of the Eastern Han Dynasty. Emperor Ling was terrified and dispatched troops to suppress the Yellow Turbans. Initially, he appointed He Jin, the brother of Empress He, as the Grand General, stationing him near Luoyang, sending Lu Zhi to Hebei to fight Zhang Jiao, and sending Huangfu Shi and Zhu Yi to Yingchuan (modern-day Yucheng County, Henan) to battle another Yellow Turban force led by Bo Cai. In the battle of Yingchuan, Bo Cai's forces fought bravely and tenaciously, but Huangfu Shi and Huangfu Chen suffered repeated defeats. Later, Huangfu Chen used fire attacks, taking advantage of strong winds to disorganize the peasant army, resulting in the deaths of tens of thousands of rebels. Bo Cai was eventually killed in battle. In Hebei, Zhang Jiao's Yellow Turban forces fought against Lu Zhi's army for a considerable period, with neither side gaining an advantage. Fearing that Zhang Jiao's peasant uprising would attack Luoyang, Emperor Ling replaced Lu Zhi with Dong Zhuo and Huangfu Chen, launching large-scale attacks on Zhang Jiao. Huangfu Chen used cunning tactics to deceive the peasant army and launched a surprise attack at night. Due to the rebels' lack of combat experience and insufficient defenses, the uprising suffered heavy losses, with over 80,000 rebels killed. The peasant army was forced to retreat to Xiayu (modern-day Jin County, Hebei) and continued to fight against Huangfu Chen. However, due to the vast disparity in resources, the peasant army suffered heavy casualties, with over a hundred thousand killed. Zhang Jiao, Zhang Liang, and Zhang Bao were killed or died of illness. Although the main force of the Yellow Turbans was defeated after nine months of fierce battles and their leaders were killed, they did not suffer a complete defeat. Many remnants of the Yellow Turbans continued to fight in different regions until 192 AD, when there were still over 300,000 Yellow Turbans in Qingzhou (modern-day Linzi, Zibo, Shandong). In 205 AD, the allied Black Mountain Army still had over 100,000 soldiers. In total, over 400,000 peasant rebels continued to fight for a long time. The Yellow Turban Rebellion failed, but it largely dismantled the ruling order of the Eastern Han Dynasty, plunging it into a state of decline and accelerating its collapse. In 189 AD, Emperor Ling died, and the young Emperor was ascended. At that time, due to the immense power of the eunuchs, Grand General He Jin sought to control their influence by inviting Dong Zhuo, who was entrenched in Hedong (modern-day southwestern Shanxi), to the capital, strengthening the power of the imperial family. However, the plan was leaked, and He Jin was instead killed by the eunuchs. Yuan Shao retaliated with his troops, killing over 2,000 eunuchs. Soon after, Dong Zhuo entered Luoyang, deposed the young Emperor, and installed Emperor Xian. Dong Zhuo was even more brutal to the people, completely disregarding the Han court officials, and showed signs of replacing the Han Dynasty. In response, many political ambitious individuals took the name of suppressing Dong Zhuo to expand their own power. In 196 AD, Cao Cao escorted Emperor Xian to Xuchang, marking the beginning of the era of "holding the heavens to command the earth," where he issued decrees in the name of the court to suit his own needs. The Han Dynasty thus ceased to exist in name, and the era of the Three Kingdoms officially began. Cao Cao was eager to unify the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River, but Yuan Shao, who controlled the northern regions of Ji Province (modern-day central and southern Hebei) and You Province (modern-day northern Hebei, Beijing, and most of Liaoning), posed a significant obstacle to his plans. In 200 AD, the decisive battle of Guandu (modern-day Zhongmou, Henan) was fought between Cao Cao and Yuan Shao. In the end, Cao Cao, despite being outnumbered, defeated Yuan Shao, removing a major obstacle. Over the following two or three years, Cao Cao completely eliminated the remnants of Yuan Shao's forces and achieved unification of the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River. Around the time of the Battle of Guandu, Sun Quan, in the south, inherited the legacy of his father and elder brother, dominating the lower reaches of the Yangtze River. Liu Bei, who claimed descent from the Han imperial family, also did not stand idle during this period, actively planning and preparing for action, temporarily residing in Jing Province (modern-day most of Hubei and Hunan, and southwestern Henan) under Liu Biao. In 208 AD, shortly after the Battle of Guandu, Cao Cao, with ambitious plans, led his army south to attack Jing Province and pursue Liu Bei, threatening Sun Quan and beginning to realize his plan to unify the entire country. Liu Bei and Sun Quan, following the advice of Lu Su and Zhuge Liang, formed an alliance to fight against Cao Cao. Zhou Yu, the main general of the Wu army, set fire to dozens of Cao Cao's warships on the southern bank of the Yangtze River at Red Cliffs (modern-day Puyi County, Hubei), and the allied forces of Sun and Liu launched fierce attacks, defeating Cao Cao's army of over 200,000 with a force of less than 50,000, achieving a comprehensive victory. Cao Cao was forced to retreat to the north. After the battle, Sun Quan's position in the south was consolidated, and Liu Bei seized parts of Jing Province, further west, and gained Yi Province (modern-day Sichuan). By this point, the situation of the three-way division of the empire was largely established. In 220 AD, Cao Cao died, and his son Cao Pi succeeded him, deposing Emperor Xian and declaring himself emperor, establishing the state of Wei with Luoyang as its capital. In 221 AD, Liu Bei also declared himself emperor, establishing the state of Shu with Chengdu as its capital, which later became known in history as Shu-Han. In 222 AD, Sun Quan formally declared himself emperor, establishing the state of Wu with Jianye (modern-day Nanjing, Jiangsu) as its capital, marking the official formation of the three-way stalemate of Wei, Shu, and Wu. After the formal establishment of the three states, large-scale wars decreased, and each state focused on political, economic, and administrative reforms within its own region, suppressing fragmented separatist forces to consolidate its rule. In Wei, Cao Cao began economic reforms before the Battle of Guandu, focusing on agriculture and establishing (state-run farms) in Xuchang, which yielded significant results and provided abundant material conditions for later dominance. After Cao Pi became emperor, he expanded the scale of, constructed water conservancy projects, and developed rice paddies, leading to rapid recovery and development of the socioeconomic conditions in the Yellow River region. Politically, Cao Cao advocated "valuing talent regardless of origin," promoting a group of capable individuals. Cao Pi also recruited morally and intellectually outstanding figures, and during the era of talent in the Three Kingdoms, the Cao family had the most. In Wu, ruled by Sun Quan, large-scale were also carried out in the Jianghuai region, extensive water conservancy projects were constructed in modern-day Zhejiang, and advanced production technologies were introduced from the north, greatly promoting the development of the lower Yangtze River region. Moreover, Sun Quan actively engaged in diplomatic activities to enhance the prosperity and development of Wu. In Shu, Liu Bei appointed Zhuge Liang as his prime minister and actively developed production in Sichuan, sending capable personnel to manage Dujiangyan and constructing new water conservancy projects. To stabilize the rear, he also improved relations with ethnic minority regions in modern-day Guizhou and Yunnan, strengthening political, economic, and cultural ties between the Han and southwestern ethnic minorities. The Three Kingdoms developed unevenly in politics, economy, military, culture, and diplomacy. Overall, Wei was stronger than Shu and Wu, so for a considerable period, Wu and Shu allied to resist Cao Cao. However, later, conflicts arose between Wu and Shu over the control of Jing Province. In 220 AD, Wu seized Jing Province and killed Guan Yu during an opportunity when Guan Yu was fighting against Wei. In response, Liu Bei personally led troops to attack Wu in 222 AD. The armies of Wu and Shu fought a large-scale battle in Yiling (north of Yicheng, Hubei). The Battle of Yiling ended with Wu's victory and Shu's defeat. In 223 AD, Liu Bei fell ill and died in Yong'an (northwest of Fengjie, Sichuan) after years of hard work. Zhuge Liang, following the late emperor's orders, supported Liu Bei's son Liu Shan and continued to pursue the policy of allying with Wu to resist Wei, determined to seize the Central Plains and revitalize the Han Dynasty. However, his multiple northern invasions failed. In 234 AD, Shu launched another northern invasion, and Wei sent Grand General Sima Yi to counterattack. The two armies fought a battle of wisdom and courage at Zhangle Yuan (southwest of Mei County, Shaanxi). As the battle reached a stalemate, the outcome was uncertain, but Zhuge Liang died in the army, and Shu was unable to continue the fight, reluctantly withdrawing. From then on, Shu's power gradually declined, while the Wei state came under the control of the Sima family. After Sima Yi's death, his sons Sima Shi and Sima Zhao, effectively sidelining the emperor. In 263 AD, Shu was finally conquered by Wei. In 265 AD, Sima Yan deposed the Wei emperor and established the Jin Dynasty, later known as Emperor Wu of Jin, with Luoyang as its capital. In 280 AD, Sima Yan gathered his troops to attack Jianye (modern-day Nanjing, Jiangsu) and conquered Wu, ending the decades-long period of division and fragmentation since the Eastern Han Dynasty. The establishment of Western Jin replaced the historical trinity of the Three Kingdoms and brought about a brief period of unification in China. The Three Kingdoms period was an era of outstanding talent, where, through prolonged political and military struggles, not only did numerous statesmen and military strategists emerge but also philosophers, writers, and natural scientists. As a result, significant breakthroughs were achieved in politics, military, economy, and culture across the Three Kingdoms. Cao Cao was an outstanding representative of the political stage during the Three Kingdoms period. Before the formation of the Three Kingdoms, his exceptional political and military talents were already evident in the warlord chaos. He utilized various conditions to eliminate many warlord forces, reformed the shortcomings of the Eastern Han Dynasty that no longer suited his political needs, and recruited lower and middle-class landlords to participate in the governance of the state, networking talents, suppressing powerful families, developing water conservancy, promoting production, and adhering to unification, laying a solid foundation for the establishment of Wei. Militarily, Zhuge Liang was a typical figure of the Three Kingdoms era. Before the formation of Shu, he was a decisive military strategist who could determine the outcome of battles. His extraordinary military talent was demonstrated in the famous Longzhong Strategy, the alliance with Sun Quan to resist Cao Cao, helping Liu Bei dominate the region, establishing Shu-Han, assisting Liu Shan in governing Shu, "seven captures of Meng Huo," and "five expeditions to Qishan." His military thought holds an important position in the history of Chinese military thought. Philosophically, Wei was the most developed, pioneering the trend of (Daoist metaphysics). The "Three Mysteries"—the "Laozi," "Zhuangzi," and "Yi Jing"—were considered the classics of the metaphysicians of that time. Wang Bi (226–249 AD), styled Fusi, from Shanyang (modern-day Jiaozuo, Henan), was the founder of metaphysics. In his works such as "Commentary on the Laozi," "Commentary on the Yi Jing," and "Brief Examples of the Yi Jing," he vigorously promoted the theory of "valuing the void," considering the non-material "void" as the substance of the universe, a form of objective idealism. From a practical perspective, his advocacy of "non-action" () based on "naturalness" lowered feudal moral norms to a secondary position, providing a theoretical basis for the greed of feudal upper classes and reflecting a certain decadent consciousness in their lives. Despite this, his works and theories had a broad and profound influence on the history of Chinese philosophy. In the field of literature and art, the Cao family father and son should be the foremost. Cao Cao (155–220 AD), styled Mengde, from Pei Guo, Qiao (modern-day Bozhou, Anhui), was not only a statesman and military strategist but also an outstanding poet and prose writer. His representative works, such as "Short Song," "Step Out of Xia Gate," and "Self-Explanation of My Ambitions," hold a certain position in the history of Chinese poetry and prose and have had a significant impact. Lu Xun once praised Cao Cao as a master of literary reform. Cao Pi's "Discourse on Literature" is the earliest existing monograph on literary criticism in China. Cao Zhi's five-character poems injected new content into Chinese poetry and also had a great influence. Influenced by the Cao family, the "Seven Scholars of Jian'an" also made significant contributions to literary development during that time. In addition to science and medicine, there were also many talented individuals, such as Zhang Zhongjing and Hua Tuo, who were renowned medical masters of the time, as well as mechanical engineers like Ma Jun. They all held important positions in the history of Chinese science development. In summary, the Three Kingdoms achieved brilliant accomplishments in politics, economy, military, culture, and other fields, which were passed down for later generations to inherit. The development of the Three Kingdoms of Wei, Shu, and Wu was uneven in terms of time. The Wu state established by Sun Quan lasted the longest, from 222 AD when Sun Quan declared himself the king of Wu to 280 AD when Sun Hao surrendered to Western Jin, a total of fifty-nine years. Next was the Wei state, from 220 AD when Cao Pi declared himself emperor to 265 AD when Sima Yan deposed the Wei emperor and established Western Jin, a total of forty-five years. The Shu-Han state had the shortest existence, from 221 AD when Liu Bei declared himself emperor to 263 AD when Liu Shan was defeated by Wei, a total of forty-three years. The complex historical process of the Three Kingdoms made it difficult for later historians to study, and due to differences in status, perspectives, and viewpoints among historians, disputes arose over who was the "" (orthodox). Some favored Wei and suppressed Shu, considering Wei as the orthodox; others favored Shu and suppressed Wei, considering Shu as the orthodox. In fact, there were indeed mutual plots between Wei and Shu to () each other, but due to various reasons, despite several wars, neither side succeeded in () the other. Wu was less prominent in these () efforts, and the concept of "" did not involve it. In reality, the wars between the Three Kingdoms were all aimed at expanding their territories and seizing leadership of the entire nation, making the concept of "" unnecessary. The history of the Three Kingdoms was intricate and complex, with outstanding figures emerging one after another and numerous events. "The Records of the Three Kingdoms" is a historical record of the entire Three Kingdoms period. It chronicles the history from the first year of Emperor Xian of the Eastern Han (190 AD), when warlord chaos began, covering a total of ninety years. "The Records of the Three Kingdoms" followed the "Records of the Grand Historian" and the "Records of the Han Dynasty" but was completed before the "Records of the Later Han Dynasty." Sima Qian's "Records of the Grand Historian" was a comprehensive history, while Ban Gu's "Records of the Han Dynasty" was a dynastic history. "The Records of the Three Kingdoms" divided the Three Kingdoms into three books: "Records of Wei" (thirty volumes), "Records of Shu" (fifteen volumes), and "Records of Wu" (twenty volumes), totaling sixty-five volumes, creating a unique style in dynastic history. The entire book has a clear narrative structure, concise and lucid language, and occasionally exhibits literary talent in describing people and events. The author of "The Records of the Three Kingdoms" was Chen Shou, styled Chengzu, from Baxian, Anhan (modern-day north of Nanchong, Sichuan), born in the eleventh year of the Jianxing era of Shu-Han (233 AD) and died in the seventh year of the Yuankang era of the Jin Dynasty (297 AD). He served as the commandant of Guanlv in Shu and held various positions after entering the Jin Dynasty, including Director of the Imperial Library and Censor-in-Chief. Before the Three Kingdoms period, historical records of Wei and Wu already existed, such as the "Records of Wei" by Jin Wang Shen and the "Brief Records of Wei" by Yu Han. Chen Shou compiled the "Records of Wei" (thirty volumes) and the "Records of Wu" (twenty volumes) based on historical records of the time. As a native of Shu and a disciple of the historian Qiao Zhou, he had long focused on studying historical books and collecting and organizing historical facts of Shu, which later led to the completion of the "Records of Shu" (fifteen volumes). These sixty-five volumes of Three Kingdoms history were combined into a single book called "The Records of the Three Kingdoms." Chen Shou, as a Jin official, was commissioned to write history, naturally considering Wei as the orthodox, referring to its rulers as emperors and narrating them in "" (annals), while treating the rulers of Shu and Wu as mere "" (biographies), and inevitably using euphemistic language when describing the rulers of Jin. Compared to Sima Qian's satirical and revealing attitude toward rulers in the "Records of the Grand Historian," this was clearly inferior. This was determined by their different positions and circumstances, as well as the limitations of history and class. "The Records of the Three Kingdoms" is known for its concise writing style, but due to its brevity, it falls short of the vividness, vividness, and liveliness of the "Records of the Grand Historian" and the "Records of the Han Dynasty" in describing historical facts and figures. Therefore, Qing scholar Li Ciming remarked in his "Diary of Yue Mantiang": "Chengzu was indeed a good historian, but his intention was to be concise, so he had more cutting than literary talent; the figures of that time were no less than those of the Qin and Han period, but Changsheng's 'Records of the Grand Historian' had a hundred times more brilliance, and Chengzu's book was dull and lacked brilliance, while Fan Weizong's 'Records of the Later Han Dynasty' was better." It should be said that Li's comments from the perspective of comparative historical research were objective. Over one hundred and thirty years after Chen Shou's death, Pei Songzhi of the Southern Dynasties period wrote annotations for "The Records of the Three Kingdoms." Pei Songzhi (372–451 AD), styled Shiji, was from Wenxi County, Hedong Prefecture (modern-day Wenxi, Shanxi), and served as the Vice Director of the Central Secretariat during the Liu Song Dynasty, also a renowned historian. He was commissioned by Emperor Wen of Liu Song to annotate "The Records of the Three Kingdoms." Breaking the traditional pattern of annotations, he did not explain terms, institutions, or names but focused on correcting errors and supplementing historical records. He cited over one hundred and forty works from the Han, Wei, and Liu Song dynasties, with the text exceeding the original book threefold, and the quoted sources were complete. More importantly, most of the original texts have been lost, and thanks to Pei Songzhi's extensive citations, they have been preserved, allowing later generations to glimpse the original book. The description of the Battle of Red Cliffs in Sima Guang's "Comprehensive Mirror for Aid in Government" in the Song Dynasty was a synthesis of the relevant biographies in Chen Shou's "Records of the Three Kingdoms" and the historical materials cited in Pei Songzhi's annotations. Therefore, we can say that Chen Shou's "Records of the Three Kingdoms" is an important work for later generations to study the history of the Three Kingdoms, and Pei Songzhi's annotations are also important reference materials for studying the history of the Three Kingdoms.