Ancient Chinese books, paper, ink, and printing technology

Author: (USA) Qian Cunxun / Country: United States
Publisher:
Publishing Date: 2002-12-01
Features:
"The Book of Rites · Kaogongji" states: "The Zhu family made the xue (book knife)." Tang Jia Gongyan's annotation notes: "In ancient times, before paper and ink were invented, characters were carved on xue. Even after paper and ink were introduced in the Han Dynasty, book knives were still used, as they were remnants of ancient methods." Song Wang Yinglin's Records of Academic Studies (Volume 4) mentions: "In ancient times, before brushes were invented, characters were carved on flat bamboo slips with a xue, which was called 'xue.' Lu was a country of poetry and writing, hence the Kaogongji considered Lu's xue as excellent." Qing Sun Yirang's Commentary on the Book of Rites (Volume 78) states: "In ancient times, writing was done by carving on bamboo slips, hence the term 'book knife.'" Modern Ye Dehui's Qinghua Lin Hua (Volume 1) notes: "Generally, official documents from the Qin and Han dynasties were inscribed with knives"; he also writes: "Carving bamboo slips, engraving wood, carving gold, and inscribing stone—all were early forms of using knives to write." The Cihai dictionary under the entry for "knife and brush" states: "Ancient bamboo slips and wooden tablets used knives instead of brushes, hence the term 'knife and brush.'" The above quotations from various scholars reflect a lack of deeper understanding of the ancient bamboo slip system. They not only considered the xue as the book knife or knife and brush but also believed that the book knife or knife was used for carving characters on bamboo slips. While knives were indeed used to carve characters on oracle bones, bronze, and stone, it was not to replace brushes. As for bamboo slips, they were written with brushes and ink, with no evidence of carving characters on them. Regarding the Han Dynasty, even after paper and brushes were invented, book knives were still used. This was because bamboo and wood remained common writing materials for three hundred years after the invention of paper. Therefore, the coexistence of paper and brushes alongside book knives did not create a temporal conflict. In fact, since the Eastern Han Dynasty, the function of the book knife was already clearly understood as editing bamboo slips. Although Zheng Xuan only mentioned the xue as "the modern book knife" without specifying its function, Liu Xi's Shi Ming provided a clear definition. In the section on military weapons, it states: "The book knife is a knife provided for editing bamboo slips." The Shu Wen dictionary defines "carve" as "to peel," which is similar to the meaning of "delete," but it does not refer to carving characters. It was only later that Jia Gongyan misunderstood it as "carving characters with the xue." Although some scholars after him followed this interpretation, Yan Shigu, who lived around the same time as Jia, already stated: "The xue refers to deleting and editing bamboo slips with a knife." [8] This shows that the theory of carving characters with a knife did not exist even in the Tang Dynasty. As for modern scholars discussing book knives [9], they have determined that the knife and brush are two separate tools—the knife for cutting and the brush for writing—and that they were not used for carving characters. This has become a settled conclusion. Wang Guowei's Study of Bamboo Slip Inscriptions and Seals states: "Whether bamboo slips were inscribed with knives or brushes is uncertain." However, he also notes: "The Han Dynasty's book knife was likely used for cutting slips, not carving characters, hence the frequent mention of 'knife and brush' together." Chavannes' Chinese Writing Before the Invention of Paper discusses the book knife as being used for cutting and the brush for writing. Ma Heng's Studies on the System of Chinese Books also mentions the book knife, noting: "The term 'knife and brush' together refers to the concept of editing, not carving characters." Wang Chongmin's Study of the Knife and Brush states: "The knife and brush are two separate tools—the brush for writing, and the knife for removing errors." Li Shuhua's Tools for the Transmission of Chinese Characters Before the Invention of Paper also notes: "The xue and brush are different; the knife and brush are two separate tools—the knife for removing errors written on bamboo slips, not for carving characters. This is similar to using an eraser to correct mistakes made with a pencil on paper." Thus, the function of the book knife was to delete errors on bamboo slips for correction or to remove the written surface of old slips to obtain a new surface for writing. As for the text on bamboo slips, it was often written in one or two lines on a narrow surface, so if there was a typo, the entire section of the slip could be removed with the long edge of the knife, rather than the difficult task of altering a single character in multiple lines. Because knives were small, lightweight, and convenient to carry, they could be placed alongside brushes for writing. Thus, the term "knife and brush" became a common noun. Recently, an iron xue, a brush, and bamboo slips were found together in a basket from a Warring States period tomb in Zuojiaogongshan, Changsha. [10] This shows the relationship between the knife and brush. Moreover, the book knife was only one of many tools used for treating bamboo slips, not the only one. It can be concluded that tools for splitting large bamboo or wood into narrow strips of a specific length and width were likely needed for initial processing, and a long, sturdy knife, saws, chisels, and scrapers were probably used for this purpose. The xue and book knife were then tools used for scraping the surface of bamboo slips and correcting errors before and after writing. In a wooden lacquered writing box unearthed from a Warring States period tomb in Xinyang, there were a bronze knife, bronze saw, bronze chisel, and bronze scraper, all described as tools for treating wooden slips. [11] This shows that saws and chisels were also tools for treating bamboo slips in addition to knives and xues.
(IV) Form and Structure
The shapes of knives and xues are quite similar, but there has never been a clear distinction between the terms "knife" and "xue." Some believed that the xue was an alias for the knife. So, what is the actual difference between a knife and a xue? According to various interpretations, the main differences lie in three parts: the blade, the back, and the handle. A knife has a straight blade, while a xue has a curved blade, inwardly curved in an arc of about 60 degrees. The Book of Rites · Kaogongji states: "The Zhu family made the xue, one foot long and one inch wide, with six of them forming a circle." Tang Jia Gongyan's annotation notes: "The xue is bent inward like an arch." Qing Sun Yirang's Commentary states: "According to Jia's explanation, it is suspected that Jia considered the xue as bent and curved inward, with a blade that curves inward." He also quotes Liu Yanlin: "The xue is one foot long, with six of them forming a circle, meaning the circle has a circumference of six feet. A circle with a circumference of six feet should have a radius of 9.575 inches, which is 60 degrees." Ruan Yuan's Jigu Zhai Zhongding Yiqi Koushi also notes: "All knife blades are outward, except for the xue." The term "knife blade outward" likely refers to a straight blade. Since the xue has a curved blade that curves inward, the back of the xue also curves to accommodate the blade's arc, which is referred to as "the xue being bent." Another difference between knives and xues lies in the handle end. A knife has a ring at the end, which can be worn or hung, while a xue has a handle for easy gripping. The Book of Documents · Gu Ming states: "Knives have a ring, while xues have a handle, and the xue is smaller than the knife." The Book of Rites · Shaoyi notes: "A knife has a ring at the tip of its blade, while a xue has a handle." Liu Xi's Shi Ming states: "A knife means 'to reach,' with the tip being sharp like a piercing point, and the base resembling a ring. A xue is curved, straight-sided, narrow, with a handle at the bottom, smaller than a knife." A knife is straight-sided, wider, and has a ring at the base, larger than a xue. However, the actual differences are not as clear-cut. Some have flat blades and straight sides with a handle at the end, while others have curved blades and bent sides with a ring at the handle. Luo Zhenyu's Collected Notes on Ancient Artifacts states: "Among the ancient xues I own, two have rings. In my collection of ancient knives, the Longtou knife and the knife with a hollow head are slightly bent, but the degree is very slight. The Xishou knife has a more pronounced bend. All these knives are one foot two inches long, the same as the Longtou knife, clearly tools for cutting." Thus, knives also bent, but not as much as xues. However, battle knives and small knives are straight and unbent.