Basic Knowledge of Taoism in China

Author: Wang Ka, Editor-in-Chief, Institute of World Religions, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, Christian Research Office
Publisher:
Publishing Date: 1999-01-01
Features: The Chinese civilization is long-standing and splendid. In the traditional thought and culture of China with a long history, there have always been two main streams. Confucianism, centered around the thought of Confucius and Mencius, is the orthodox culture of China. Meanwhile, Taoism, represented by the thought of Laozi and Zhuangzi, as well as the Taoist religion that emerged from it, is another major branch of Chinese culture. The complementarity of Confucianism and Taoism, along with the introduction of Buddhism from outside, constitutes the basic framework of the three religions coexisting in Chinese traditional culture for nearly two thousand years. As one of the three religions, Taoism and Taoist religion had a significant impact on various aspects of ancient Chinese society, politics, academia, religious beliefs, literature, art, medicine, and technology. As Lu Xun, the great writer, said, "The roots of China are entirely in Taoism." Most modern Chinese scholars believe that Taoism and Taoist religion are two concepts that are both connected and distinct. Traditionally, Taoism is sometimes referred to as Taoist religion, or vice versa, as well as Huang-Lao. But strictly speaking, they are not entirely the same. The term "Taoism" first appeared in Sima Tan's Essentials of the Six Schools during the Western Han Dynasty, referring to the school within the Hundred Schools of Thought before the Qin and Han dynasties that was represented by the thought of Laozi and Zhuangzi, or the Huang-Lao philosophy that flourished during the Warring States, Qin, and Han periods. In terms of ideological theory, both Taoism and Huang-Lao emphasized the "Dao" as the highest category, advocating respect for the Dao and virtue, imitating nature, and governing and cultivating oneself through the principles of tranquility and non-action. Therefore, they were called Taoists. As for "Taoist religion," it was formed on the basis of Huang-Lao Taoist theory during the Han Dynasty, absorbing the alchemy of ancient immortal cultivators and folk shamanistic beliefs in ghosts and spirits, thus becoming a religious entity. By its very name, "Taoist religion" means the "Dao's teaching" or preaching, or simply the religion that believes in the "Dao" and attempts to "become an immortal" through spiritual and physical cultivation. As a religious entity, Taoist religion not only has its unique scriptures, doctrines, beliefs in immortals, and ritual activities but also has its sect lineages, religious organizations, disciplinary rules, and places of worship. Such a religious community is clearly different from the early Taoist schools. Although Taoism and Taoist religion cannot be entirely equated, they are closely related. The early Taoist philosophy's cosmology of the "Dao" giving birth to all things, the transformation of qi in the universe, and the unity of heaven and humanity; its dialectical thinking on the opposition and unity of yin and yang; its principles of governing and cultivating oneself through natural non-action and pure simplicity; as well as its mysticism of meditating with a pure heart to understand and align with the Dao, all had a profound influence on the doctrines and practices of Taoist religion. In summary, the philosophical ideas of Taoism, the alchemical practices of immortal cultivators, and the folk shamanistic beliefs and worship of ghosts and spirits in ancient China were the three main sources from which Taoist religion absorbed and constructed its religious theology, cultivation methods, and rituals. Additionally, Confucianism's ideas of using deities to establish education and its ethics of loyalty and filial piety, Buddhism's concepts of rebirth and the illumination of the mind, Mohism's ideas of equality and perseverance, as well as the divination and numerology of the Yin-Yang school, were all integrated and assimilated by Taoist religion. The formation of Taoist religion as a religious entity began in the Eastern Han Dynasty. The development of early Taoism into Han Dynasty Taoist religion took several hundred years and was the prehistory of Taoist religion. After its formation, Taoist religion continued to evolve along with the changes in ancient Chinese social systems and cultural trends. The history of Taoist religion over the past two thousand years can be roughly summarized as follows: The Eastern Han to the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties was a period of the formation and establishment of Taoist religion. During the later Eastern Han Dynasty, Taoist religion took shape as a religious entity, with the formation of folk original religious groups like the Taiping Dao and the Five-Pound-Meal Dao, and the emergence of groups of immortal cultivators. After hundreds of years of transformation and development during the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, the scriptures, cultivation methods, disciplinary rules, and rituals of Taoist religion gradually became complete, new sects emerged and flourished, and they were recognized by the ruling class, evolving from early folk religions into a mature orthodox religion. The Sui, Tang, and Northern Song dynasties saw the peak of Taoist religion due to the reverence of the ruling class. Emperors Xuanzong of Tang, Zhensong of Song, and Huizong were all famous emperors who revered Taoism. They fabricated stories of deities manifesting and divine books descending, favored (Daoist priests), ordered the compilation of the Dao Zang (Daoist Canon), and constructed temples and monasteries, expanding the social influence of Taoism. The philosophy, health practices, talismanic magic, and ritual rules of Taoism became even more refined. However, Taoism was also used as a tool to deify feudal autocratic rule, and some high-ranking (Daoist priests) became corrupt and luxurious, leading to criticism of Taoism from the discerning. Since the late Tang and Northern Song dynasties, some new changes have emerged within Taoist religion, primarily the integration of Confucian, Buddhist, and Taoist thought, with the rise of the Jindan Dao sect, which focused on internal alchemy. During the Southern Song and Yuan dynasties, Taoism underwent reforms. In Northern China, new sects like the Quanzhen Dao, the Taidao, and the Zhen Da Dao emerged, while in Southern China, new sects like the Nan Zong of Jindan, the Tianxin, Shenxiao, Qingwei, and Jingming sects appeared. Early sects like the Tianshi Dao, the Shangqing, and the Lingbao sects also underwent reforms in their doctrines and practices. Promoting the unity of the three religions and emphasizing internal alchemy were the main characteristics of the new Taoism during this period. The Ming and Qing dynasties spanned over five hundred years, marking the late stage of traditional Chinese society, which was increasingly corrupt and declining. The three religions—Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism—as pillars of traditional Chinese culture, also stagnated and rigidified. The rise of secret folk religious groups and the introduction of Western Christian culture accelerated the decline of traditional Chinese culture. Modern Chinese Taoism inherited the legacy of the Ming and Qing dynasties and failed to revitalize. Today, Taoism has lost its position as the mainstream of Chinese culture. However, like Confucianism and Buddhism, Taoism still has a significant influence on the spiritual life and customs of the Chinese people. Looking at the history of Taoism and Taoist religion, as well as their doctrines, cultivation methods, and rituals, they are deeply rooted in Chinese culture. The ideological doctrines of Taoist religion integrate the laws of nature and the laws of the sacred, a monistic cosmology and polytheistic beliefs, and an otherworldly spirit with worldly merits. They align with the traditional Chinese philosophy of the unity of heaven and humanity and the combination of inner sagehood and outer kingship. The cultivation methods of Taoist religion emphasize the cultivation of both life and nature, giving equal importance to physical cultivation and spiritual refinement, and blending shamanistic practices with scientific technology. This reflects the "mysticism" characteristic of Chinese culture. The organizational forms of Taoist religion are both top-down and folk-based, with illegal folk religious groups and legal official sects developing alternately. Its temple management systems range from traditional patriarchal and monastic systems to modern corporate legal systems. These characteristics are distinctly different from Western religions. Over the past two thousand years, Taoism and Taoist religion have had a comprehensive and profound impact on Chinese culture. The beliefs in immortals of Taoist religion and the Taoist emphasis on natural non-action have deeply influenced the romanticism in Chinese literature and art and the naturalist aesthetic concepts. The folk worship of deities in Taoist religion is closely intertwined with the daily life and cultural entertainment of ordinary Chinese people. The alchemical practices of Taoist religion have made significant contributions to the development of ancient Chinese chemistry and pharmacology. Its practices of cultivating qi, sexual practices, mental cultivation, and internal alchemy are closely related to traditional Chinese medicine and human science. These excellent cultural heritages continue to attract countless Chinese people today. To help more readers understand the knowledge of Taoist culture and promote the traditional culture of our country, we have accepted the suggestion of Religious Culture Publishing House to compile this informative book. It briefly introduces the historical development, doctrines, cultivation methods, rituals, famous mountains and temples, and the relationship between Taoism and Chinese culture and art in six aspects.